Introduction to Philosophy

1. Introduction to Philosophy Philosophical Terms Logic Things you ought to know.

2. QTF • “If you are smart, you are wise.”

3. What is Philosophy? WISDOM! • Philosophy is about: • Finding answers to serious questions about ourselves and about the world we live in: • What is morally right and wrong? And why? • What is a good life? • Does God exist? • What is the mind? • What is art? • Is the world really as it appears to us? • What can we know? • …and much, much more • Questioning existing knowledge and intuitions to get closer to the truth

4. Philosophy • Our primary concern is to do what is right and to believe what is true. • Philosophy provides us with some of the intellectual/conceptual skills we need to achieve this. • But these skills are difficult to acquire.

5. What skills? • The study of philosophy involves critical thinking. • Critical thinking is the use of reason, deliberation, investigation, assessment of arguments, and assessment of justification. • This is a skill that is necessary in all aspects of our daily life as citizens, professionals and persons.

6. Doing philosophy… • Philosophy is not merely a matter of developing and defending one’s own view. • It requires understanding, considering, and giving fair weight to competing alternative views. • You will often see both of these things going on in the papers you read. • It is important to distinguish the philosopher’s own view from those he/she are arguing against.

7. Doing philosophy… • Philosophy requires that we consider the rational implications/consequences of our beliefs. • If you believe that x, then what does that commit you to? what follows from x? • Often, upon examination, we find that our beliefs lead us to unacceptable conclusions: • “Lying is (always) wrong” • “Poor people are just lazy” • “God is omnipotent”

8. Doing philosophy… • Philosophy involves evaluating arguments. • To give an argument for a claim is to give reasons (evidence) for that claim. • What counts as good vs. poor reasons (evidence)? • Good: Perception/Introspection/Rational intuition/Reasoning/Empirical data/Expert opinion • Poor: Hearsay/Social conditioning/Popular opinion/Blind faith

9. Open your Mind! • This course deals with abstract questions and topics, many of which you may have never considered. • If you have an open mind and put forth a consistent effort you will do fine in this course!

10. So what is philosophy for? • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mIYdx6lDDhg

11. Activity • Ice Breaker-find a student. • Personal Meaning • Due EOC.

12. Warm Up • What would you do if there was no tomorrow? Taken at face value, this is a fairly straightforward question. • What actions would you take? What would be the foundation of your principles? • It is a straightforward question, but it is also a complicated one. The question is whether or not our choices would be made based on the merit, the value, of their reasons, or on the subjective interest of our desires. 

13. Philosophy- The love of wisdom • Divisions of Philosophy • Epistemology: Theory of Knowledge • Metaphysics: Nature of Existence • Ethics: Study of Right and Wrong • Political Philosophy • Philosophy of Religion • Aesthetics • Eastern Philosophy • Logic

14. Logic • The science of rational thought. • Formal tools or ways of reasoning. • Rhetoric- The art of persuading people

15. Formal and Informal Logic • Formal logic- employ a structured argument with a set of premises and one conclusion. • 1.If P then Q • 2. P • 3. Therefore Q

16. Deductive Logic • Deductive logic- • If the structure of the argument is VALID • And if the premises are TRUE or SOUND then the CONCLUSION must be TRUE! • 1. PQ 1. PQ • 2. P 2. Q • 3. Q 3. P • Valid Invalid

17. Inductive Logic • Practical knowledge- Inductive logic or reasoning. • 1. I have measured 1000 triangles and the sum of the internal angles always adds up to 180 degrees. • 2. Therefore the next triangle I measure, the angles will add up to 180 degrees.

18. Fallacies • A Fallacy is a logical defect in an argument. • There are formal or structural fallacies and informal fallacies which are flaws in thinking.

19. Argument ad Hominem • Argue that a proposition must be false, because of the person making the argument. • This is a Fallacy in reasoning- you should attack the argument not the person making it.

20. Appeal to Emotion • Try to prove an argument based upon sympathy or an appeal to emotion- • This is a Fallacy in reasoning- emotions are irrelevant to the structure of an argument and the validity of its conclusion. • This type of thinking can be a fallacy.

21. Appeal to the People or Majority • Some argue that the majority must be right? • Was the majority right when the majority of people thought slavery was okay? Or the majority is Nazi Germany thought concentration camps were good ideas? • This type of thinking can be a fallacy.

22. Appeal to Tradition • Some argue that since it has always been that way, it should continue to be that way. • Traditional marriage, traditional family… the traditional family servant or slave. • Traditions can be important, but they are not all equally rational. • This type of thinking can be a fallacy.

23. False Dilemma • In this situation, an argument is given which ignores viable alternatives: • 1. If you don’t believe in God, then you will go to Hell…. • 2. Therefore, you’d better believe in God. • Well, maybe there is no heaven or hell.

24. Example from Animal Rights • Descartes: • 1. If you do not have a soul, • Then you do not have rights. • 2. Animals do not have souls. • 3. Therefore, Animals do not have rights.

25. Crazy Utilitarian Argument • 1. People have rights. • 2. Animals have rights. • 3. Therefore people and animals have the same rights. • People are equal to Goats.

26. Video • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fXLTQi7vVsI

27. Activity • Constructing an argument-work in pairs. • Prepare to present! • Due EOC.

28. Warm Up • "The consequences of an act affect the probability of it occurring again." B.F. Skinner * • Evaluate the validity of thought behind this quotation and use support to defend your position.

29. Let’s do Some Philosophy: Two Thought Experiments • The Trolley Bus Problem and the Spare Parts Surgeon are examples of problems you will find in ethics courses • We can use thought experiments like these to work out what is going on when we make a moral judgement and… • Give insight into what makes moral judgements right and wrong

30. The Tram Dilemma • An out of control tram will soon kill 5 people who are stuck on the track. • You can flick a switch to divert the tram to another track where only one person is stuck. • Should you flip the switch? • Should you kill one person to save five? SWITCH

31. The Surgeon’s Dilemma • You are a surgeon with six patients. • Five of them need major organ transplants. • The sixth, an ideal donor for all the relevant organs, is in hospital for a minor operation. • Should you kill one person to save five?

32. What’s going on here? • Should you kill one person to save five? • Trolley Dilemma = “yes” • Surgeon Dilemma = “no” • If you have two conflicting intuitions then either: • there must be some morally relevant difference between the two cases, or • One or more of your intuitions is wrong • So which is it?

33. Back to Moral Theory • We want to know what makes actions morally right or wrong… • And, how can we know? • Moral ‘common sense’ might not be enough

34. What’s going on here? • Should you kill one person to save five? • Trolley Dilemma = “yes” • Surgeon Dilemma = “no” • If you have two conflicting intuitions then either: • there must be some morally relevant difference between the two cases, or • One or more of your intuitions is wrong • So which is it?

35. Morally Relevant Differences? • You guys try to spot some • And I’ll try to explain them away

36. Did Our Moral Common Sense get it Wrong? • Should you kill one person to save five? • Trolley Dilemma = “yes” • Surgeon Dilemma = “no” • Does anyone think one answer is wrong?

37. Jungle Dilemma • You are trekking alone in the Amazon. • You discover an evil army officer and his troops rounding up villagers. • Unless you kill one, the troops will kill six. • Should you kill one person to save five?

38. Jungle Dilemma Cont. • What if there are 2 villagers? • What if there are 10 villagers? • What if there are 100 villagers? • Can you ever kill one innocent person to save many?

39. Activity • Find the fallacy • Practice critical thinking-–eventually you are going to evaluate the claim that life has meaning/purpose. • Consult this website to gather your own personal thoughts: http://www.debate.org/opinions/does-human-life-have-meaning • Then answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper: • What do YOU think the purpose of life is? • Do you think you are here for a reason? Explain why/why not. • Do you think human life is valuable? Explain why/why not? • Is it possible to think that human life is valuable but life itself is meaningless? Explain why/why not.

40. Warm Up • If you could describe a perfect life with just three words, what would they be?

41. The Meaning of Life

42. ‘Absurd’ in the Ordinary Sense • A noticeable difference between what someone intends or claims and reality • A clash between the internal and external perspectives • George Bush doesn’t think he’s a kitten-eater, but… • Everyone else knows that he is

43. Absurd to Philosophers • The dramatic difference between: • Our (internal) perception of the significance of our lives • The objective (external) perception of the significance of our lives • It’s absurd because, from the external view, our lives have only a tiny fraction of the significance that we feel and act as though it has

44. Our Significance from the Inside • Every event in the universe is viewed by its actual and likely impacts on us • Events are only significant if they are likely to or actually do significantly affect us • The universe revolves around us • We are all like this to some extent, but some people don’t realise that this is the same for other people! • You may know people like this

45. Our Significance from the Outside • Each and every one of us are completely insignificant to 99.9999999999999999999% of what exists • Ex: When global warming kills the universe, our plans would seem beyond insignificant to anything left to observe • Even if we do have free will, so many of our ‘choices’ are still the result of our prior causes • Why will most of you vote for the same political party that your parents do? • Why are you so individual?

46. The Human Condition • From the inside, our significance is paramount • From the outside, our significance is basically none-existent • The Human Condition is being aware of the contradiction between these two points, the absurdity of our situation • Humans are thought to be unique in their ability to be aware of this situation

47. The Myth of Sisyphus • Sisyphus made a deal with the Gods and then went back on it • They punished him by giving him a meaningless chore to do for eternity • Nothing comes of Sisyphus’ labours • And nothing will ever come of them • His existence is meaningless

48. Video • https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=124&v=a8XBJM7GJqk

49. What if He Wanted to Roll Rocks? • Imagine that the Gods changed Sisyphus’ desires so that all he wants to do is roll the rock up the hill • He now gets exactly what he wants for all eternity • Sounds great! • But, does this make his existence any more meaningful?

50. Taylor on Meaning • Meaninglessness is endless pointlessness • Meaningfulness is activity with a point, a result, a significant culmination • So, which of these best represents all life as we know it? • This includes plants and animals