Ling 122: English as a World Language – 15

1. Language Contact: Bilingualism and Code Switching Readings: Johnson Zentella Ling 122: English as a World Language – 15

2. Language Contact • A situation that arises when • two or more languages are spoken in the same or adjoining regions • And • when there is a high degree of communication between the people speaking them • Can result in • Language loss or even language death • Bi- / multilingualism • Language change

3. Bilingualism (Multilingualism) • Individual Bilingualism – the use of two (or more) languages by an individual • E.g., an individual who speaks both English and Spanish as described by many of the informants in the Hinton article • Societal Bilingualism – the use of two (or more) languages within a given community • E.g., the bilingual setting in India, Canada, Switzerland, Malaysia, etc.

4. Societal Bilingualism • Identify a community here in California that you are familiar with. • From your impressions, what languages are used? In what domains?

5. Describing Individual Bilingualism & Multilingualism • The term ‘bilingualism’ may mean different things to different people. • To the average person, bilingualism can be loosely defined as: • the use of two languages or • the native-like control of two languages.

6. What it means to be bilingual … • 75% of the world’s population speak two or more languages. • Not all bilinguals speak two languages at the same level. • By the age of 2.5, a bilingual child begins to make choices in language use, usually the majority language. • Parents who want their children to retain their heritage language must work at it. • In the U.S. immigrants are strongly urged to assimilate and discourages from retaining their heritage language. • That is a national loss.

7. Describing Individual Bilingualism • Bilingualism has often been defined in terms of language competence. But a definition of bilingualism must also account for the impact of social, psychological and cultural variables on the bilingual individual. • How did you (or someone you know) become bilingual? • What is your (their) proficiency in each language? • When do you (they) use each language?

8. Describing Bilingualism & Multilingualism • Is someone bilingual who: • has a slight non-native accent in one or both languages? • makes occasional errors of syntax in one or both languages? • doesn’t always know the right word to use in one or both languages? • speaks both languages fluently but is culturally comfortable in only one language?

9. Describing Bilingualism & Multilingualism • Five important variables in relation to bilingualism: 1] degree of bilingualism 2] context of bilingual language acquisition 3] age of acquisition 4] domain of use of each language 5] social orientation

10. Degree of Bilingualism - Definitions • Bloomfield (1933): native-like control of two languages (maximalist) • Mackey (1962): the ability to use more than one language (minimalist) • Weinriech (1953): the practice of alternately using two languages (minimalist) • Haugen (1953): the point where a speaker can first produce complete meaningful utterances in the other language (minimalist) • Maximalist approach: describes the ideal bilingual (not reality) • Macnamara (1969): need to discuss the degree of bilingualism / competence in sub-components (LSRW)

11. Degree of Bilingualism - • Rate your own bilingual abilities (1 = weak; 5 = excellent) in your two languages Lg A Lg B • Listening • Speaking • Reading • Writing

12. Degree of Bilingualism – Balanced Bilinguals • Individuals fully competent in both languages (Lambert et al. 1959) • Almost impossible to achieve (Baetens Beardsmore 1982) • Sociolinguistic forces demand that bilinguals organize their languages in functionally complementary spheres. No society needs two languages to perform the same set of functions. Balanced bilingualism entails the death of bilingualism. (Fishman 1972)

13. Degree of Bilingualism – Dominant Bilinguals • Individuals who are dominant in one language. • Less dominant language = ‘subordinate.’ • Dominance does not apply to all domains. • One may be dominant in the subordinate language in some domains.

14. Degree of Bilingualism – Passive / Recessive Bilinguals • Individuals who are gradually losing competence in one language, usually because of disuse. • common among immigrant groups • often loose productive skills while retaining receptive skills

15. Degree of Bilingualism – Semilinguals / Limited Bilinguals • Individuals who appear to have limited proficiency in both languages. Deficit in six language competencies: • size of vocabulary • correctness of language • unconscious processing of language (automation) • language creation • mastery of the functions of language (e.g., emotive, cognitive) • meanings and imagery

16. Context of Bilingual Language Acquisition • Individual who are labeled as ‘limited bilinguals’ are usually from lower SES groups. Their language proficiency is the result of their SES and not some cognitive deficit. • Can you think of individuals you know who might fit into some of the categories listed above?

17. Context of Bilingual Language Acquisition • Primary context / natural bilingualism: situations in which a child acquires both languages in a naturalistic setting without any structured instruction • Secondary context / school bilingualism: situations in which a child acquires one of the languages in a structured setting, usually school.

18. Context of Bilingual Language Acquisition • Naturalistic fused setting: no separation of context for both languages; child is exposed to both languages in the same context. • Naturalistic separate setting: one parent, one language model; but also applies to other interlocutors, i.e., siblings, peers, grandparents, etc.

19. Context of Bilingual Language Acquisition • Elective bilinguals: individuals who have some element of choice about learning a second language. • Circumstantial bilinguals: individuals who have no choice about learning a second language; indigenous colonized or minority groups. • Distinction is important especially with respect to how bilinguals are measured.

20. Age of Acquisition • Sensitive age for language learning (from Lenneberg’s 1967 ‘critical period’): We have a superior language learning capacity early in life which will disappear or decline with maturation. • evidence for exceptions • no clear cut-off age • Important references on age & acquisition: • Birdsong, D. 1992. Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition. Language 684: 706-755 • Birdsong, D. 2005. Interpreting age effects in second language acquisition, In J. Kroll & A De Groot, eds., Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches. New York: Oxford University Press.

21. Age of Acquisition • Possible factors: • neurological • aptitudes • attitude • identity and motivation • nature of exposure • What is a ‘native speaker’?

22. Age of Acquisition • Rate your competence in your first language in the four macro skills (LSRW). Are you equally competent in all skills? What would be considered ‘native-like’ proficiency for a learner of that language? What levels of competence do you expect native speakers to have? • Who would you rule out as a native speaker? What standards of norms do you use in your assessment? (Consider someone brought up in India or the Philippines who speaks English as a first language. Would you consider that person a native speaker?)

23. Domains of Use • Domains: the different spheres of influence in a speaker’s life – • Family • Friendship • Religion • Education • Employment • etc.

24. Domains of Use • Interlocutors: a language relationship tends to evolve naturally. And once established, it is usually not easy to alter • Place or Location: work vs. home; physical location like neighborhoods • Topic: language of technical discourse or cooking, gardening, etc.

25. Social Orientation • Attitudes of bilinguals toward their bilingual status; • Attitudes toward the larger community; • Attitudes of the larger community toward them and their bilingual status.

26. Additive vs. Subtractive Bilingualism • Subtractive bilingualism / differential bilingualism: Without first language support, the learning of a new language may entail the loss of that first language. • Additive bilingualism: an environment conducive to the development of the first language as well as the development of the second language results in the maintenance of both.

27. Code Switching – The case of SpanglishAna Celia Zentella • Code switching: The juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems (Gumperz 1982) • Lexical borrowing: Words from one system adapted phonologically and morph-syntactically and used regularly in another system and

28. Why switch? ‘On the spot’ variables • The linguistic proficiency of the person(s) to whom one is speaking • The language requirements of the setting, i.e., speak the language that is spoken to one

29. Why switch? ‘In the head’ variables • Where to switch • Switch at turn points • Switch within a turn • Switch to co-construct a unique identity • Footing (re-alignment) • Speaker to quoter; friend to protector; narrator to evaluator • Clarification • Check for approval, attention, or hearer’s knowledge

30. Why switch?‘Out of the mouth’ variables • One’s own language proficiency • Lexical limitations • Syntactic constraints

31. Zentella’s conclusions • English-Spanish switching is a creative style of bilingual communication • To negotiate meaning with each other • To construct a unique identity • To realign footing • To clarify • To emphasize a message • To control the interlocutor • Code switching was a way of saying that one belongs to both worlds

32. Discussion • Code switching is especially noticeable to those who don’t speak one of the languages involved in the switching, yet even monolinguals engage in style shifting, moving from one style or variety of their language to another (for example, when a minister or politician who is speaking Standard English switches to a regional or ethnic dialect for humor or to make a point). When do you shift styles? Why? Can you give an example?