Imperialism

1. Imperialism Theories of Causes and Motives

2. Economic explanations: Classical Economic Theory • States annex areas because they need a secure source of raw materials, export markets for industrial output and outlet for surplus capital • Capitalist system that works to maximize profits • Wages kept low, purchasing power declines, selling products and new investments becomes difficult • Outside markets have to be found to avoid overproduction and underconsumption • Radicals like Lenin claimed this was highest stage of capitalism, Hobson-liberal-claimed not inevitable, but to raise purchasing power of the masses

3. Evaluation • Overseas investment in africa by major imperialist powers (france, germany, GB) didn’t go to africa—mainly europe or south america (france invested heavily in russia)—what was invested in africa was invested in old african empires (mainly egypt and SA) • Of the 5 main imperialist powers in africa, only GB had significant overseas investment—italy and portugal faced severe capital shortage during partition • But economic motives might be present, even though they didn’t materialize—territorial expansion perceived as necessary to safeguard future of industrial power, so hoped colonies would be good investment—Leopold II (belgium must have a colony like netherlands’ indies!) and de Brazza felt so, but Leopold was unsupported by traders, industrialists, financiers—belgium economy leaned on walloonian heavy industry, easily traded with europeanneighbours

4. Defensive imperialism/Closed Door Theory • Capitalist states best served by free trade Ricardian system, each state produces best-suited product, international specialization and optimal advantages • But some states try to get advantage at cost of others by raising trade barriers • Other states forced to pursue imperialism to prevent economic losses • Economic recession of 1870s also felt in West Africa (senegal to laos)—led to increasing french and brit protection of trading interests there • In german trading circles, seemed whole west african coast being closed off by french and brits, threatened trading interests • Finding the door to africa closed pushed bismarck to imperialism

5. Evaluation • In reality, no question of german exclusion, but pro-colonialism propagandists used this as argument • Anglo-french convention applied only to part of west coast—senegal to sierra leone, and never ratified • Germany’s interest in africawas open door, guarantees of free trade and navigation • Bismarck’s decision to reject Anglo-Portuguese trade agreement and to recognize congo free state was partly related to secure free trade for germany in congo area • But policy of formal imperialism was unnecessary for this

6. World System approach • With the start of economic recession, british superiority and world economic hegemony declined • New industrializing powers (USA, Germany) threatening economic hegemony—these felt need for large markets and raw materials to do this • Period of protectionism and formal imperialism as each rival attempts to preserve its own portion of periphery

7. Evaluation • During partition of Africa, economic rivalries between great powers were increasing • Protectionist measures in germany and france • French rivalry and expansion of trade threatened coastal powers britain relied on for security of merchants • But britain’s economic commitments and interests called for expansion regardless of international strategic rivalry—niger delta taken even before french and german rivals arrived

8. Political theories—Balance of Power • Imperialism a safety valve for european powers’ rivalry • After franco-prussian war, germany strongest continental power, Bismarck tried to maintain this • Concluded range of treaties and agreements to stabilize european balance of power • To prevent bond between france and russia, to isolate france • By aggressive colonial policy, britain (main obstacle to german hegemony) to be forced to political agreement

9. Evaluation • Bismarck did support anglo-frenchegyptian venture and after france failed, backed french diplomatic efforts to have britain withdraw • Demarches in west and southwest africa were moves to encroach on britishafrican preserves • But in most areas of conflict UK appeared to be appeasing france, bismarck feared anglo-french entente against german colonialism • National considerations in german elections also played a role • Aggressive colonial policy lasted only 1 year under bismarck

10. Social imperialism • Territorial expansion as political means to face internal social unrest—increasing class conflicts in periods of rapid industrialization • Bismarck’s germany faced unrest because of unsteady growth of german economic development 1873-96—periods of rapid industrialization interceded by various industrial crises while recession in agricultural sphere in 1876 • Imperialism a way of diversion from social troubles and preservation of economy in time of recession • Maintenance of traditional power structure (domestic) with bismarck on top

11. Evaluation • If staying in powerwinning elections, then this policy may have been factor, effective as well • Bismarck’s anti socialist laws • Bismarck protected iron and steel, and agriculture sector in 1879 by general tariff • Political support of hamburg, Bremen and other north German cities • Colonial lobbies politically useful because they appealed to same middle class audience providing support for political rivals • But effort to achieve social imperialism in stalemated political society only led to militarism, destruction of representative gov and WW1—failed to integrate forces of order (agrarian junkers and industrial middle class) against socialism and democracy

12. Mythical theory—irresponsible leaders, Warrior class interests • French expansion in west africa and towards upper nile based on illusions of politicians • Reputed richness of interior may explain french striving for larger empire • expansion towards upper nile to pressure britain into international conference on egypt—illusion of support of other powers (Germany, Russia) and diplomatic reaction of GB • Great autonomous power of colonial department, frequent alternations of politicians, personal influence of decision makers, prevailing anti-british foreign policy, influence of public opinion and pressure groups and bad and incomplete information from anglophobe expansionist army officerspersistance of colonial/imperial myth • Greatest misperception of european powers—leopold’s adventure would fail

13. Prestige Imperialism • Territorial expansion fed by feelings of national consciousness and pride—goal unto itself • Italian expansion prompted by german expansion—italy didn’t react to French takeover in tunisia despite 50,000 italiansthere, but after Bismarck started annexation, politicians convinced Italy couldn’t stay behind • Portuguese gov justified imperial policy by appealing to heroic colonial past—a matter of prestige • Recognition of her claims in Congo considered question of honor, (brit) interference in colonial affairs was vehemently rejected

14. Strategic Interests (robinson and gallagher) • Consider british takeover of egypt 1882 start of imperialism in africa—laid foundation of anglo-french rivalry in africa • Afrikaner nationalism in SA threatened status quo—british trade and mining interests, route to india in case of problems with the suez • Nearly all interventions consequences of threat to british influence and security in the world

15. Evaluation • Theory suggests french expansion in africa search for compensation for egyptianlosss • Anglo-french rivalry did last through majority of period, only resolved after fashoda crisis • French convention with Leopold 1884 regarding right to pre-empt his territory if adventure failed partly motivated by fear that if leopold were forced to dispose his possessions, they would go to britain • But france in congo was also a search for old grandeur, not entirely due to anglo-french rivalry and compensation for egypt

16. Partition process in Africa • 1875-79 Penetration of central africa by Leopold II from east (with Stanley’s help) and de Brazza from west, for exploration and on personal terms • 1879-82 Leopold and de Brazza still on personal title, penetration directed towards exclusive rights • 1883-84 brazza acts officially in french name, leopold and france try to obtain sovereign rights, Portugal and Brits step in, conflicting territorial claims between france and portugal on one hand and portugal on other • 1884-5 partition becomes european diplomacy issue, guided by Bismarck, conflicts solved by diplomacy

17. The Start • Until 1875 european interests along west african coasts limited, interests in interior of africa even more so • West African trade dominated by Brits • Mid-1870s, central africa became interest of european geographic associations, african ‘mysteries’ of interior • Great african rivers not just geographic interest but also economic and strategic as potential function as main lines of communication • Leopold II of Belgium attracted by economic promises of congo, but not supported at home, so acted alone

18. Association internationale du Congo • Under a philanthropic cover of opening up central africa to western trade and civilization and removing slavery, Belgian expeditions dove into Africa • From 1877 onwards, directed towards Congo—leopold heard of Stanley’s journey through Central Africa, enormous trading potential in congo basin and river as grand highway of commerce • Stanley recruited by leopoldto establish posts along river and obtain sovereign rights from local african rulers to open up congo area • Competitor: de Brazza, french naval officer, wanted to set up french trade imperium, rejected by french government but funded by minister for the navy (under whom colonies fell), Montaignac, friend of Brazza family

19. Leopold-France • Brazza concluded treaty with King Makoko for protectorate on area bordering north right bank of congo • In 1882, french policy had changed to protectionist-colonialist, call for colonies especially by naval officers and geographers, Brazza-Makoko treaties ratified • Real scramble up for the upper congo and kwilu-niari basin between brazza and stanley—easier communication line from upper congo to atlantic for france, leopold couldn’t be sure of lower congo because of portuguese claims • Stanley won—almost whole kwilu-niari basin with coastline, while france got just few posts and in area and on congo • Leopold got recognition of AIC from USA, concession from france: promised to respect AIC territories in return for pre-emption of possessions if leopold forced to dispose of them • Became european problem as french dominance in africa far more threatening than Leopold’s adventurism

20. Portugal-Britain-France • Renewed negotiations between portugal and britain on portugal’s territorial claims in the region—britain had never recognized these because of slave trade and portuguese protectionist colonial policy and britain’s growing trade interests there • With makoko treaty, threat of french trade monopoly in congo area—great threat for existing and future trade, because of french return to formal imperialism, britain informal imperialism based on free trade and paramountcy worthless • Best alternative to place portugal at mouth of congo, in return for portuguese trade and navigation concessions in all of africa • 1884 treaty recognized portugal in lower congo, north and south banks—leopold’s outlet to sea by lower congo blocked • Storm of protest—portugal trading houses thought treaty a humiliation as brit recognition had been very conditional, british humanitarian organizations and chamber of commerce protested because of portuguese protectionism and inefficiency and corruption of authorities in territorial possessions • French protests, and also German refusal to ratify treaty—claimed it was threat to free trade rights of all nations

21. Germany—Bismarck Aussenpolitik • German reaction part of emerging anti-british colonial policy • Recession hit both industry and agriculture, demands for colonies and protection • Colonial movement came into existence 1882, gov and ruling political parties couldn’t ignore colonialism • New german policy’s first sign here (one year later: cameroon coastlines, togo, german east africa (tanganyika), south-west africa (namibia) • By making britain a reichsfeind, hoped to touch nationalist sentiments and win elections in 1884 • Had to appease france to cultivate anglo-french rivalry and prevent franco-russian alliance—rapprochement • Supported french at london conference 1884 on egypt, agreed to force settlement on west africa and congo basin, organized berlin conference

22. Berlin Conference 1884-5 • At french request, territorial matters not included on agenda—french preferred bilateral discussion with weak portugal and even weaker belgian AIC • Territorial questions discussed behind the scenes, emphasis on free trade and navigation in conference • Britain uneager to join conference—Ferry and Bismarck included niger river on agenda, GB considered lower niger ‘british’ like ‘french’ senegal • But not joining meant complete isolation; bismarck recognized AIC 1884 just before start of conference (AIC at least promised free trade in meantime, better than French and portuguese protectionists) • Ferry also happy with bismarck’s move—AIC free trade meant no revenues for AIC, only making french purchase more likely • Britain had no choice but to recognize AIC territory as well—congo Free state established

23. Conclusions • British role—status quo of free trade to be preserved, protector and ally of weak portugal (brits willing to discuss portuguese territorial claims even before france-leopoldcongo affair), this offered opportunity to demand better trading conditions in portuguese colonies—repeated and lengthy negotiations 1876-82 showed free trade first, portugal second • De Brazza and leopold may represent elite characterized by militarism and nationalist class with imperialism as goal unto itself, but neither france nor belgium was such an elite at this time, ventures never supported in belgium and only lately supported in france

24. Conclusions • Developments in technology--transport and communications made imperialism possible • Increasing economic and political rivalry in europe made imperialism probable • Transition from liberalism to ideology based on aggressive nationalism and racism (social darwinism) • Although economic stagnation started 1873, effects intensified in 1882, protectionism grew in france, germany, portugal • 1881 Dreikaiserbund (germany, russia, austri), 1882 Triple alliance created (Germany-Austria-Italy)—france isolated as britain in splendid isolation • Imperialists like Ferry came to power in France • Britain took over Egypt in 1882, as a matter of strategic interest—french prestige hurt, compensation not received