Research Designs and Variables

1. Research Designs and Variables

2. Literature review Observation/ Background survey Broad area of research Theoretical framework Hypothesis generation Variables clearly identified Problem definition Research design Problem statement Research questions Deduction Methods Sampling Data collection Analysis Interpretation Hypothesis substantiated? RQ answered? Where we are now…

3. Lesson objectives • Recap and checklist for chapters 1 and 2 • Describe types of research

4. Checklist for chapter 1 • Introduction/ Background • Broad problem or issue that is researched • Rationale for the study • Problem statement • Research questions • Hypotheses • Definition of key terms • Limitations • Significance • Theoretical • Practical

5. Checklist for chapter 2 • Writing and Evaluating the quality of your literature review • Is there an introduction to the document that presents a definition, thesis, and organization for the chapter? • Does the order of the headings and subheadings represent the relative importance of the topics and subtopics? Is the order of headings logical? Do the major topics, as represented by the major headings, match the organization put forth in the organizing statement in the introduction? • Does each major section have an introduction and a summary? • Does the review have a conclusion?

6. Checklist for chapter 2 • Is the relation of the review to past and current research clearly shown in the summary paragraphs? • What are the most relevant and important sources that bear on this topic/problem? Could the reader identify these if asked to do so after reading the review? • Are these sources presented in a way that denotes their importance? Are some cited so many times they lose power through repetition? • Does the review make sense? • Is the review interesting so that the reader wants to learn more?

7. Theoretical and conceptual framework • What is the difference? • Theoretical framework is based on propositional statements resulting from an existing theory • Conceptual framework is one that the researcher develop through identifying and defining concepts and proposing relationships between these concepts

8. Variables and Constructs • Variable : Anything that can take on differing values • Examples:

9. Definition of a Variable A Variable (A Characteristic or Attribute) Can be and Measured Varies (Can assume different values or scores for different individuals) (Can be assessed on an instrument and recorded on an instrument)

10. Variables and Constructs • A Variable is an attribute or characteristic stated in a specific or applied way • A Construct is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract, general way. Construct Student Achievement Variable Grade Point Average

11. Measured Exists in degree Can assign number Height Weight Interest Age Time spent on task Student motivation School engagement Sleepiness Level of anxiety Categorical Also known as qualitative variable Qualitatively different Eye color Gender Religion Race Occupation Program Subject taught Political party membership Measured and categorical variables

12. Types of Variables • Dependent • Independent • Extraneous • Moderating

13. Dependent Variable • Dependent • Of primary interest • Purpose is to predict the variability of this variable • Researcher measures this variable Dependent Variable Physics Test scores

14. Independent Variable • Independent • One that influences the dependent variable • Positive or negative • When the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present Independent Variable Dependent Variable Use of simulation Test Scores

15. Extraneous variables • Other variables that influence • What will influence the relationship between use of simulation and test scores

16. Moderating Variable • Moderating • One that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable- dependent variable relationship • Its presence will modify originally expected relationship

17. Moderating Variable Independent Variable Dependent Variable Use of simulation Physics Test scores Moderating variable Physics Anxiety

18. A good theoretical framework • Variables clearly identified • Important relationships theorized • Indication of positive or negative relationships if there are sufficient findings from previous research • Clear explanation of why the relationships are expected • Draw a schematic diagram Independent Variable 1 Dependent Variable Independent Variable 2 Independent Variable 3

19. Research paradigms Recap

20. Descriptive Causal Comparative TYPES Experimental Correlational Basic Types of Research

21. Types of studies : Descriptive • Descriptive • the researcher attempts to document what is actually occurring • may be either qualitative (descriptions in words) or quantitative (descriptions in numbers) • Quantitative descriptive research = survey research • The researcher has no control over the phenomena of study, but simply records what is observed or reported.

22. Types of studies : Correlational • Correlational (Quantitative) • the research relates the level of one variable to a corresponding level of another variable in an attempt to discover any relationships between them • Purpose is to predict the level of one variable by knowing the level of a second variable • The researcher has only moderate, if any, control over the variables in this type of study • Most often used study in educational psychology as well as in many areas of the social and behavioral sciences

23. Types of studies : Experimental • Experimental ( Quantitative) • the researcher randomly assigns subjects to at least two groups (experimental and control) • In the experimental group, the researcher manipulates the level of one (independent) variable and observes the corresponding change, if any, in the level of another (dependent) variable. • Purpose is to determine if there is a causal relationship between the two variables.

24. Types of studies : Experimental • Quasi Experimental • non randomly assignment of subject to at least two groups (experimental and control)

25. Types of studies : Causal comparative • Causal comparative / ex post facto • Explores relationship among variables that cannot meet the true experimental research. • Usually the independent variable cannot be manipulated / has already occurred • Age, gender, smoking • At least two different groups are compared on some dependent variable • Math achievement of non smoker/ smoker

26. EXAMPLE: The effect of having a working mother on primary school student’s absenteeism. What are the two groups?

27. Research Designs

28. Designing a research • Check purpose of your study • Exploratory? • Descriptive? • Hypothesis Testing? • Look at your data • Numerical? • Narrative? • Also ask • Looking at differences? Association? Correlation? • Decide the research techniques • How to collect data?

29. Exploratory • Do not know about the situation at hand • Have very little or no info of the problem • For obtaining a good grasp on the phenomena of interest • Usually qualitative • Extensive interviews • Observations • Data reveals patterns of interest • Leads to descriptive/survey

30. Examples Work ethics of non Malays in UiTM Learning support needs of PKPG students Math students’ interest in the philosophy of science

31. Descriptive study • Describing characteristics of variables or situation • Qualitative aspects • Quantitative aspects • Descriptive statistics – frequency, mean, standard deviation • EXAMPLES • Profile of Malaysian adult learners • Characteristics of a successful PKPG student

32. Hypothesis testing • Beyond describing – understand relationship • Explain nature of certain relationship • Establish differences among groups • Explain independence of factors in a situation • EXAMPLES: • More male learners than female learners engage in plagiarism • Achievement in research courses is related to …….

33. Ask questions Is data numerical or narrative? narrative numerical Cause – effect relationship Past event? Both numerical And narrative no yes no yes Independent variable manipulated? Relationship? Prediction? Historical research Qualitative research : Exploratory Ethnography Case study Grounded Theory yes no yes no Experimental research Causal comparative research Correlational research Descriptive research

34. Determine your research design Is your main data numerical or narrative? narrative numerical Numerical and narrative equally substantial Cause – effect relationship Past event? Historical research Independent variable manipulated? Relationship? Prediction? • Qualitative research : • Descriptive • Exploratory • Case study • Ethnography Experimental research Correlational research Survey Causal comparative research

35. Quantitative Designs and Uses Intervention Research Non-Intervention Research Explaining whether an intervention influences an outcome for one group as opposed to another group Associating or relating variables in a predictable pattern for one group of individuals Describing trends for the population of people Experimental Research Correlational Research Survey Research

36. Qualitative Designs and Uses Exploring the shared culture of a people group Exploring common experiences of individuals to develop a theory Exploring individual stories to describe the lives of people Ethnographic Research Grounded Theory Research Narrative Research

37. Combined Designs and Uses Combining quantitative and qualitative data to best understand and explain a research problem. Using quantitative and qualitative data for individuals to study problems that they face in their setting Mixed Method Research Action Research

38. Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research in the Process of Research Steps in the Research Process Two Approaches Research Designs Quantitative Qualitative Identifying a Problem Quantitative Qualitative Reviewing the Literature • Experimental • Correlational • Survey Quantitative Qualitative Specifying a Purpose Quantitative Qualitative Collecting Data • Mixed Method • Action Research Quantitative Qualitative Analyze and Interpret Data • Ethnography • Grounded Theory • Narrative Quantitative Qualitative Report and Evaluate

39. Experimental Research Design

40. Preliminary Stage Fieldwork and Analysis Stage Conclusion Stage Trend analysis Collect quantitative data on utilization of support elements by the group Select cases Choosing Appropriate Theoretical Framework Form research questions Cross subject (groups) analysis Create threaded discussion in forum Data Interpretations Conduct interview Electronic Focus group Email interview Design and pilot interview questions Content analysis Extraction of themes Draw Conclusions Example: Qualitative Research Design

41. Action Research Next….