Reading and Writing with APA Style

Reading and Writing with APA Style Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

Reminder: Quiz 3 (chpt 8) due date Sept 4 (Friday) 11:59 PM • Exam 1 is 1½ weeks away • Online CITI ethics training due week 5 • http://psychology.illinoisstate.edu/jccutti/psych231/f15/fall2015ethics.html • This week’s labs: • Download AND read the Assefi & Garry (2003) article before labs • Bring the article to labs Announcements

Observational approaches: Data collection • How do we observe the behaviors of interest? • Types of research designs • What kinds of research questions are you investigating? • E.g., Cause and effect? Descriptive? Conducting Research

Observational approaches: Data collection • How do we observe the behaviors of interest? • Naturalistic observation • Participant observation • Survey & interviews • Archival data • Systematic (contrived) observation • Experiments Direct Observation Observation without manipulation Observational Methods

Advantages • Complex patterns of behavior in particular settings • Useful when little is known about the subject of study • May learn about something that never would have thought of looking at experimentally • Disadvantages • Causality is a problem • Threats to internal validity because of lack of control • Every confound is a threat • Lots of alternative explanations • Directionality of the relationship isn’t known • Sometimes the results are not reproducible Observational Methods Observation without manipulation

Observational approaches: Data collection • How do we observe the behaviors of interest? • Naturalistic observation • Participant observation • Survey & interviews • Archival data • Systematic (contrived) observation • Experiments Direct Observation Observation without manipulation Observational Methods

Systematic (Contrived Observation): The observer sets up the situation that is observed • Observations of one or more specific variables made in a precisely defined setting • Much less global than naturalistic observations • Often takes less time • However, since it isn’t a natural setting, the behavior may be changed Observational Methods

Observational approaches: Data collection • How do we observe the behaviors of interest? • Types of research designs • What kinds of research questions are you investigating? • E.g., Cause and effect? Descriptive? Conducting Research

Case studies • Intensive study of a small set of individuals and their behaviors • Correlational • Looking for a co-occurrence relationship between two (or more) variables • Experimental • Investigating the cause-and-effect relationship between two (or more) variables through the manipulation of variables • Quasi-experimental • Experimental designs with one or more non-random variables Types of research designs

This view has some disadvantages • There may be poor generalizabilty • There are typically a number of possible confounds and alternative explanations • Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method. Typically: • Descriptive (and non-experimental). • Interesting (and often rare) case. Fits well with clinical work. • Phineas Gage(Sci. Am. Show) • Sept 13, 1848 Explosion propelled a railroad tamping rod through his brain • Changed personality Case Histories See: Oliver Sacks’ books for some other great examples interview

Measure two (or more) variables for each individual and see if the variables co-occur (suggesting that they are related) • Used for: • Predictions • Establishing Reliabilityand Validity • Evaluating theories • Limitation: Shouldn’t make casual claims Y X ? or or Correlational Methods

We’d like to say: • To be able to do this: • There must be co-variation between the two variables • The causal variable must come first • Directionality problem • Happy people sleep well • Or is it that sleeping well when you are happy? • Need to eliminate plausible alternative explanations • Third variable problem Y X causes X Y X Y or X causes Z causes • Do Storks bring babies? • Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings Y Causal claims

Source: Kronmal (1993) r = 0.63 • Do Storks bring babies? • Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings Causal claims

Y X causes • Is killing storks and effective method of controlling birth rates? Theory 1: Storks deliver babies Causal claims

X causes Z causes Y Theory 2: Underlying third variable Causal claims

Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments • Must have a comparison • At least two groups (often more) that get compared • One groups serves as a control for the other group • Variables • Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated • Allows for the testing of causal hypotheses • Dependent variable - the variable that is measured • Control variables - held constant for all participants in the experiment The experimental method

Advantages • Precise control possible • Precise measurement possible • Theory testing possible • Can make causal claims • Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments • Disadvantages • Artificial situations may restrict generalization to “real world” • Complex behaviors may be difficult to measure The experimental method

The Literature • Why review it? • What is it? • How do you read it? • How do you write it? Reading and Writing with Style (APA)

What are the goals of a research article? • For the reader to: • Know about the research • Understand what was done • Allow further testing & replication • Be convinced by the research (hopefully) • Standardization of research report format • APA style • Organization and content reflects the logical thinking in scientific investigation • Standardization helps with clarity • Read with a critical eye • Write with clarity in mind Reading a research article

Writing the paper is the routine part of the research process • Forces you to commit to your evidence and conclusions • Just the facts • The facts are just part of the argument that the author is making • What you say is all that is important, how you say it isn’t important • Good writing leads to higher chance of accomplishing your goals Misconceptions about Scientific writing

Psychological writing tends to differ from other academic writings • Not a creative writing exercise • Presenting an argument based on data and logical reasoning • Try to avoid using direct quotes, restate things in your own words. • Avoid digression • Footnotes are rare, they’re used to elaborate/clarify a point. Try to do so in the text. • If long digressions, use the appendix Writing style

The ultimate resource for APA style is the APA Publication manual 6th ed. • Chapter 8 of your textbook is good too. • Lab manual sample paper pp 86-93 • Also websites to help too. Writing resources

A great book for Psychological writing Sternberg, R. J. (2003). The psychologist’s companion: A guide to scientific writing for students and researchers. Cambridge University Press, NY. Writing resources

To ease communication of what was done • Forces a minimal amount of information • Provides a logical framework (for argument) • Provides consistent format within a discipline • People know what to expect • Where to find the information in the article • Allows readers to cross-reference your sources easily Why a structured format?

Communicate with clarity Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity • Write for the reader • Think about your audience, what do they already know, what don’t they know • Avoid overstatements • Be conservative in your claims • Emphasize the positive • Focus on how the data supports a theory not just on how it refutes another theory Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity • Avoid • Jargon when possible • Slang and colloquialisms • Sexist and biased language • Try to be concise • Don’t use a whole paragraph when two sentences will do • Longer papers don’t mean better papers • Eliminate unnecessary redundancy • Use simple words (sentences) rather than complicated words (sentences) Major goal: Clarity

Use concrete words and examples • Check your work! • Read it over, make sure that you say what you mean to say • Use a consistent format (APA style) • It helps your reader understand your arguments and the sources they’re built on. • It also helps you keep track of your sources as you build arguments • Communicate with clarity Major goal: Clarity

Adolescent Depression 2 We explored attachment in a family context by applying family systems principles to the investigation of multiple attachment relationships within families. This study focused on maternal adult attachment with respect to family of origin experiences. We examined associations between maternal adult attachment and three levels of family functioning including individual maternal depression symptoms, dyadic marital satisfaction and family unit functioning. We found that attachment security with respect to particular relationships was differentially associated with different levels of family functioning. • Abstract • Body Adolescent Depression 29 References Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 185-202. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 86-93. • References • Authors Notes • Footnotes • Tables • Figure Captions • Figures • Title Page Adolescent Depression 1 Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION Adolescent Depression and Attachment Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye Purdue University APA style: Parts of a research report

The basic parts of a research article: • Title and authors- gives you a general idea of the topic and specifically who did it • Abstract- short summary of the article The anatomy of a research article

Running head – will go on each page of published article, no more than 50 characters Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION 1 Adolescent Depression and Attachment Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye Topnotch University Title should be maximally informative while short (10 to 12 words recommended) Order of Authorship sometimes carries meaning Affiliation – where the bulk of the research was done • Published title pages will look a bit different, but you’ll find these pieces of information. Typically the body of the article will begin as well. Title Page

Abstract: Short summary of entire paper • 150 to 250 words • The problem/issue • The method • The results • The major conclusions • Recommendation: write this after you’ve finished the rest of the paper • Good first contact, but remember that it is short on detail • Shows up in PsycInfo • Gets skimmed before reading the article Abstract

Start broad • Hourglass shape • Background • Literature Review Body

Narrow focus • Hourglass shape • Statement of purpose • Specific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level) Body

Most focused • Hourglass shape - Methods - Results Body

Broaden • Hourglass shape • Discussion • Conclusions • Implications Body

Introduction - gives you the background that you need • Issue and Background • What is it? Why is it interesting/important? • Literature Review • What has been done? What theories are out there? • Statement of purpose • What are you going to do and why? • Specific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level) • What do you predict will happen in your research? Body

Writing checklist • Be cohesive • Be relevant (why are the reviewed studies relevant?) • Work on the transitions (make the flow logical) • Introduction - gives you the background that you need • Reading checklist • 1) What is the author's goal? • 2) What are the hypotheses? • 3) If you had designed the study, how would YOU have done it? Body

Method - tells the reader exactly what was done • Enough detail that the reader could actually replicate the study. • Subsections: • Participants - who were the data collected from • How many, where they were selected from, any special selection requirements, details about those who didn’t complete the experiment • Apparatus/ Materials - what was used to conduct the study • Design • Suggested if you have a complex experimental design, often combined with Materials section • Procedure • What did each participant do? Other details, including the operational levels of your IV(s) and DV(s), counterbalancing, etc. • The basic parts of a research article : Body

Method - tells the reader exactly what was done • Reading checklist 1 a) Is your method better than theirs? b) Does the authors method actually test the hypotheses? c) What are the independent, dependent, and control variables? 2) Based on what the authors did, what results do YOU expect? • Writing checklist • Is it clear why the procedures were selected? • Are any assumptions explicit and defended? • Is the level of detail sufficient for replication? • The basic parts of a research article : Body

Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here) • Verbal statement of results • Tables and figures • These get referred to in the text, but actually get put into their own sections at the end of the manuscript • Statistical Outcomes • Means, standard deviations, t-tests, ANOVAs, correlations, etc. Body

Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here) • Reading checklist • 1) Did the author get unexpected results? • 2 a) How does the author interpret the results? • b) How would YOU interpret the results? • c) What implications would YOU draw from these results? • Writing checklist • Is it clear how the hypotheses are tested by the analyses? • Would a graph or table help clarify the results? • What questions might the reader still have, and how could I answer them in this section? Body

Discussion (interpret the results) • Relationship between purpose and results • Theoretical (or methodological) contribution • Implications • Future directions (optional) • Reading checklist • 1 a) Does YOUR interpretation or the authors' interpretation best represent the data? • b) Do you or the author draw the most sensible implications and conclusions? • Writing checklist • Have you stated your most convincing argument? • Do the conclusions follow straightforwardly from the results? Body

References • Author’s name • Year • Title of work • Publication information • Journal • Issue • Pages Adolescent Depression 29 References Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 185-202. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 86-93. When something odd comes up, don’t guess. Look it up! The rest

References • Authors Notes (new guidelines put these on title page) • Footnotes • Tables • Figure Captions • Figures The rest

These are used to supplement the text. • To make a point clearer for the reader. • Typically used for: • The design • Examples of stimuli • Patterns of results Figures and tables

Clarity • Acknowledge the work of others (avoid plagiarism) • Active vs. passive voice • Active: Summers and Jordan (2009) hypothesized that speakers use to much passive voice • Passive: It was hypothesized by Summers and Jordan (2009) that speakers use to much passive voice Checklist - things to watch for

Avoid biased language • APA guidelines: • Accurate descriptions of individuals (e.g., Asian vs. Korean) • Be sensitive to labels (e.g., “Oriental”) • Appropriate use of headings • Correct citing and references • Good grammar • APA style checklist Checklist - things to watch for

Reading and Writing with APA Style