Notes: “The Age of Reason”

I AM SO GLAD I CAN REASON. THE POWER OF REASONING IS WHAT MAKES HUMAN BEINGS SPECIAL. (ACTUALLY, IF I’M SO REASONABLE, WHY AM I NAKED ON A ROCK?) Notes: “The Age of Reason”

The Scientific Revolution • began in the mid 1500’s • Rejected some of the previously held theories of the classical Greeks, Romans, & medieval period • relied upon mathematical reasoning& observation to make sense of the physical universe

Astronomy • The accepted model of the universe throughout the Middle Ages had been Ptolemy’s geocentric theory– stating the Earth was the center of the universe. • 1543-- Nicolaus Copernicuspublished On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres • Proposed the heliocentric theory– stating that the planets revolved around the SUN.

Astronomy • Tycho Brahecollected data which served as evidence to support Copernicus’s theory. • Johannes Keplerused Brahe’s data to calculate the orbits of the planets & further support the heliocentric theory.

Astronomy • Galileo Galileiperfected the telescope & made further observations in support of Copernicus’s theory. • Many thought that questioning systems of thought about the universe would lead to questioning of all systems of knowledge . • As aresult, Galileo was tried before the Inquisition & found “vehemently suspect of heresy”. He was forced to recant & live out his life under house arrest!

the Scientific Method “I THINK; THEREFORE I AM.” • 2 scientists, Francis Bacon (England) & Rene Descartes (France), rejected the idea that science should explain the physical world in a way that coincides with the teachings of the Church. • Descartes believed that ability to reason was the defining characteristic of humans • Their work ed to the modern “Scientific Method”--a process of observation & experimentation to discover the truth.

Physics • Isaac Newton wrote in The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy that all of nature follows uniform laws • He argued all motion can be measured & described mathematically(“Laws of Motion”). • Originated the idea that the force of universal gravitykeeps planets in their orbits around the sun (removing last doubts of the heliocentric model).

the “Age of Enlightenment” • The Scientific Revolution searched for laws which govern the physical world--Why not look for similar natural laws which governed human nature & society? • In the 1600’s the Enlightenment, or the “Age of Reason” began . . . • Enlightenment thinkers believed that reason could be used to solve social, political, & economic problems of the day.

the Enlightenment • The Enlightenment began with a reflection on the roles and purpose of government. • Some thinkers supported absolutism . . . • While others opted for more democratic systems (based on popular sovereignty). • New ideas emerged about the relationship between ppl. & gov’t. (i.e.--the “social contract”).

Thomas Hobbes LIFE, MUCH LIKE MY MOUSTACHE, IS NASTY, BRUTISH, & SHORT. • In the Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes contends that humans by nature are cruel & selfish. • Quotes . . . • “So that in the nature of man, we find three principal causes of quarrel. First, competition; secondly, diffidence; thirdly, glory.” • “Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of war, where every man is enemy to every man . . . and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

. . . more Hobbes • First to propose a “social contract” exists . . . • the idea that humans give up some freedoms & control over their lives to the government, in exchange for protection. • Hobbes argues in favor of a powerful government . . . to prevent conflict, disorder, & men oppressing one another. • Supported absolute monarchy (only form of gov’t that creates “real unity”)

John Locke • In his essays Two Treatises of Government, John Locke contends that humans are by nature: • Born equal • Naturally social beings • Self-interested, but also altruistic (good, charitable) • Quotes . . . • “Liberty is to be free from restraint and violence from others” • “All mankind . . . being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions.”

. . . more Locke EVERYONE HAS THE RIGHT TO LIFE, LIBERTY, & THE PURSUIT OF A BETTER HAIRSTYLE ! JUST LOOK AT THESE CURLS !! • Locke argues humans are born with natural rights—including life, liberty, health, &property. • Government was formed by people to protect these natural rights ! ! • The best government has limited power& should be consented to by all.

Locke’s Radical Idea YOU GOTTA FIGHT . . .FOR YOUR RIGHTS . . • Locke’s RADICAL idea: government has an obligation to the people—to protect their natural rights. If the government fails to do so, the people have the right to overthrow it. • This idea influenced both the American & French Revolutions.

The Philosophes I ♥ WISDOM! Philosophe = ‘lover of wisdom.’ I ♥ Cookies ... • The philosophes were 18th c. French scientists, authors, & Enlightenment thinkers inspired by Rene Descartes & other freethinkers. • Advocated for political, economic, & social reform in France. Me, too!

Philosophes--Voltaire “An ideal form of government is democracy, tempered with assassination.” • Francois-Marie Arouet(Voltaire) was a French Enlightenment author & leader of the philosophes. • He defended the principle of freedom of speech, even though he was imprisoned & exiled for his writings.

. . . more Voltaire • Voltaire exposed abuses of the day in satires & other writings • He poked fun at the what he argued to be the absurdity & corruption of the slave trade, Bourbon monarchy, etc. • His signature satire, Candide, voices sharp criticism of the French nobility and the Catholic Church.

Baron de Montesquieu ENGLAND RULES!!! (CONSTITUTIONALLY, THAT IS.) • After studying at academies in Bourdeaux & Paris, Charles-Louis de Secondat (Baron de Montesquieu) traveled & studied governments in other European nation-states. • In his book The Spirit of the Lawshe expressed great admiration for the limited monarchy that had evolved in England.

. . . more Montesquieu • Montesquieu argued that the division of government powers into separate branches (a.k.a. “separation of powers”) ensures limited government & protection against tyranny. • He called for 3 branches—w/ a system of checks & balancesbetween them. • This idea greatly influenced the framers of the US Constitution.

Executive Branch— enforces the laws (King, Prime Minister, President) Judicial Branch— interprets the laws (court systems) GOVERNMENT Legislative Branch— makes the laws (Parliament, Congress) Branches of Government

“Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains!” Jean-Jacques Rousseau • French thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau was inspired by Locke’s ideas. • Believed that men are born good in the state of nature, but become corrupted by society. • InThe Social Contract, Rousseau argues that legitimate authority comes only from a mutual agreement of the people, made in an effort to preserve one another’s freedom

. . . more Rousseau • He believed the peopleto be the “sovereign” of the state (i.e.-popular sovereignty) • The “general will” would ensure that the good of the community would prevail over what is good for individuals • Rousseau’s ideas are seen throughout the coming revolutions Taxes? . . . Chains! Church doctrine? . . . Chains! The pressure to wear a powdered wig? . . . Free at last!!

the Spread of Enlightenment Ideas L’ETAT C’EST MOI!! C’EST STUPIDE. • Thanks to printing & cheaply produced pamphlets, Enlightenment ideas spread through Europe & America. • People increasingly questioned absolutism, the class system, & the Church. • Government authorities tried to censor ideas & information by burning books & imprisoning authors.

Denis Diderot & Encyclopedie • Encyclopedie (the first encyclopedia in history w/ named contributors) was compiled btwn. 1751-1772. • Included articles on every subject—from mechanics, to biology, to political philosophy. • Editor Denis Diderot stated its purpose was “to change the way people think”. • Represented the freethinking and reasoning of the Enlightenment • Despite efforts to ban Encyclopedie (by both the Church & State), the workspread Enlightenment ideas through Europe & America. Engraving from the Encyclopedia depicting the extraction of salt from sea water

Salons & Coffeehouses • Salons were social gatherings (in the homes /parlors of inspiring hosts) where writers, artists, philosophes, & others conversed & exchanged ideas. • New coffeehouses also became centers of Enlightenment discussion. • Allowed members of the nobility & middle class to exchange ideas on equal footing.

The “Enlightened Despots” • Enlightened Despot:absolute monarchs (claimed divine right) who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment (esp. rationality), & used some Enlightenment principles in governing their lands. • Frederick the Great (Prussia)—invited Voltaire to set up an academy of science in Berlin; est. universal religious freedom and freedom of the press; wrote the first German law code • Catherine the Great (Russia)—encouraged education for nobles and middle class; wrote letters to Voltaire; relaxed censorship laws; encouraged modernization of agriculture; • Joseph II (Hapsburg)—created a fiscal and judicial bureaucracy; enacted greater religious toleration (of Protestants)

The Enlightenment & America • The “Founding Fathers” of the US were influenced heavily by Enlightenment ideas • Thomas Paine— author, political theorist; wrote the pamphlet Common Sense(1776), urging colonists to call for independence from Britain • Thomas Jefferson— author, politician, philosopher; wrote the Declaration of Independence (1776), based heavily on Locke’s ideas (ex: “unalienable rights”) • Benjamin Franklin— scientist, inventor, author, political theorist; served as ambassador to France from 1776-1785; key leader of the American Enlightenment

Deism • Like Voltaire and other European Enlightenment thinkers, many of the “Founding Fathers” of the US adopted Deism. • Believe in God, but deny “supernatural” aspects of Christianity. • Viewed the universe as an “orderly realm”. • God created the universe & natural laws to govern it (then did not interfere in its working, ex: like a watchmaker setting a watch into motion). • It is argued that James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, & Thomas Jefferson were all Deist.

Enlightenment &Women • Early Enlightenment thinkers focused on inequities between class/caste, but not gender . . . • Women were considered to have some rights, but only limited to the home & family. • Viewed more as debutantes & objects of beauty, women were seen as incapable of the same level of education as men. • Female intellectuals like Olympe de Gouges (France) & Mary Wollstonecraft (England) called for reform & new rights

Mary Wollstonecraft • British social critic Mary Wollstonecraft argued that women were being excluded from the social contract. • In her Vindication of the Rights of Womenshe attributes the plight of women to “a false system of education”. • Contends that educating girls & boys equally would allow women to participate equally in public life later on. • Inspired work of later suffragettes.

Economics & the Enlightenment • Mercantilism was the dominant economic system before the Enlightenment (driven by government policies & tariffs on imports/exports) • Physiocrats sought economic reform • wanted to find a rational economic system based on natural laws • advocated laissez-faireeconomics (means ‘let it be’ in French)-- no government interference in the economy!!! • Promoted capitalism, a.k.a. the “free market” (private individuals own the means of production)

the ‘Father of Capitalism’ • Adam Smith • In his book the Wealth of Nations, Smith contends that there are natural economic forces which will regulate the economy if it is left alone • He refers to these forces as “the invisible hand” of the marketplace

more Capitalism • Market decisions are driven by supply & demand • Suppliers of goods or services for which there is a high demand will receive economic rewards (profit), & vice versa . . . • The government should NOT interfere to tell buyers and sellers what to do (they will act in their own self-interest) • The market will eventually reach a natural equilibrium—without government interference!

Notes: “The Age of Reason”