1.27k likes | 1.4k Views
Mathematical Review. What is PhysicsReview of Basic MathMeasurement and SignificantCalculationsEstimation. Accuracy and PrecisionSiDensitySpecific Gravity. Order of Operation. AdditionSubtractionMultiplicationDivision. You need to do multiplication and division before addition and subtr
E N D
1. INTRODUCTION TO CHEM/PHYSICS OF ANESTHESIA Review of Measurements
Review of Chemistry Basics
Review of the Basics of Physics
Fluids
Solubility
Gas Laws
Vaporization
Acid Bases and Buffers
Sine Waves
Electricity
2. Mathematical Review What is Physics
Review of Basic Math
Measurement and Significant
Calculations
Estimation Accuracy and Precision
Si
Density
Specific Gravity
3. Order of Operation Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division You need to do multiplication and division before addition and subtraction
4. X = 12 + 3 x 10 X = 12 = 30
X = 42
5. Algebra Unknown
quantity Convert equation into some form of x
If the variable is multiplied by some number you need to divide both sides of the equation by that number
If the variable is divided by some number you need to multiply both sides of the equation by that number
Addition and substraction the same rule applies
6. 12X = =180 X = 15
7. Square Roots
8. Exponentials Shorthand for the number of times a quantity is multiplied
Volume = 1cm x 1cm x 1cm
Volume 1 x 1 x 1 = cm x cm x cm
1 x 1 x 1 =1
1cmł
9. Logarithms Logarithms are mixed up exponents.
10. Scientific Notation The use of exponents for handling very large numbers. A number multiplied by the power of ten. How many places you have to move the decimal point so that one digit remains to the left of the decimal point.
11,000,000 = 1.1 x 107
0.00000000045 = 4.5 x 10 -9
11. Estiminations How many piano tuners are there in Chicago?
12. Graphing The value of x changes in a predictable way in response to changes in the value of some other variable
13. Accuracy and Precision Accuracy
The agreement between experimental data and the true value Precision
Is agreement between replicate measurement
14. It is important that the pulse oximeter gives consistent readings If the readings are different every time you will lose confidence in the patients condition
15. Si metric system The metric system consists of a base unit and a prefix multiplier
Base unit = length, mass or volume
Prefix = multipliers increase or decrease the size of the base unit
16. Session 2 Review of Chemistry
17. State of Matter Five states
18. Atomic Structure
19. molecules Made up of atoms of or different elements
20. Vanderwaals Forces Two molecules on collision course
Closer accelerate toward one another
Initial collision molecule adopts new straight course
As temperature increases number of collisions increase
21. Isotopes Different atomic weights caused by gain or loss of atoms different physical properties
22. Avogadro Avogadro's Number, 6.022 x 1023
23. Periodic table
24. Chemical bonding
25. Chemical bonding NaCl
26. Covalent bond Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. Since electrons move very fast they can be shared, effectively filling or emptying the outer shells of the atoms involved in the bond. Such bonds are referred to as electron-sharing bonds. An analogy can be made to child custody: the children are like electrons, and tend to spend some time with one parent and the rest of their time with the other parent.
In a covalent bond, the electron clouds surrounding the atomic nuclei overlap.
29. Covalent Bond
30.
31. Chemical reaction Combustion
32. Carbon Dioxide Absorber Reaction of CO2 in Soda Line
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
H2CO3 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + 2H2O + heat
Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + NaOH
33. Valence a measure of the number of chemical bonds formed by the atoms of a given element.
The concept was developed in the middle of the nineteenth century in an attempt to rationalize the formulae of different chemical compounds.
34. Radical
35. Radical Group of Atoms Hydroxyl l (-OH)
Phosphate (PO4.2)
Ammonium (NH4)
Bicarbonate (HCO3)
Sulfate (SO)
Nitrate (NO3)
Carbonate l (CO3)
36. Organic Chemistry
37. Names Ethane 2 Carbons
Propane 3 Carbons
Butane 4 Carbons
Pentane 5 Carbons
Hexane 6 Carbons
Heptane 7 Carbons
Octane 8 Carbons
nonane 9 Carbons
Decane 10 Carbons
38. The next most complex hydrocarbon structure is called ethane CH3CH3
39. Alkane Each bond is accounted for by an individual atom
Remove a H substance become a radical
Methane CH4 Methy CH3
Radicals are named by converting ANC to YL
Methane to Methyl
Propane to Propl
40. Complex Organic Compounds Branch chain alkanes (named for longest continued chain)
Name, position on chain begins at either end of longest chain
Primary, Secondary and tertiary are used to differentiate forms of the same compound
Atom groups may be indicated by a prefix. Numbers denote position
When identical groups are located on the same carbon the main chain number are supplied for each group
Last portion of the compound name will be the main chain
alkane
41. Alkenes and Alkynes Alkenes Have a general formula C2H2
42. Isomers
43. Stereoisomers Identical structural formula but different in their spatial arrangement
Optical
Oeometric
44. Optical Isomers When the groups attached to the carbon atom differ from one another
Cause a bending (rotation) of light passing through the substances vertical axis.
Light polarized to the right produces a dextro isomer, when light is polarized left the levo isomer is formed
Mirror images
Mixed racemic
45. Oeometric Isomers Two carbon atoms joined by a double bond
46. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Alcohol
47. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Alcohols
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
48. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Halogen
Aldehydes
49. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Ketone
50. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Esters
51. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Amino acid
52. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Amine
53. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Amide
Amide synthesis
54. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Thio Compounds
55. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Organic Acids (COOH)
56. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Quaternary Base
Formed from Ammonium hydroxide
57. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds C6H6
58. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Ethyl ether
Dimethyl ether
Diethyl ether
isoflurane
59. Class Divisions of Organic Compounds Polynuclear Aromatic Structure
60. Session 3 Review of Physics
61. CAUSES OF MOTION Newtons First Law
Newtons Second Law
Newtons Third Law
Vectors
Gravity
Frictional Forces
62. MOTION SPEED
VELOCITY
ACCELERATION
63. Reduction Valves
65. Resistance
Resistance = pressure drop/flow
Pressure drop along a tube which results fluid flow
66. Pumps Heart
Apply and learn most laws of Physic
Flow Force
67. Work Work
Work done on an object is the force times the distance moved
W =Fs
68. Energy Capacity for doing work
Cannot be lost but converted
69. Law of Conservation of Energy Energy can neither be created or destroyed through it can be transformed from one form to another
70. Power RATE OF DOING WORK
Differential of work
Similar to velocity (distance :velocity)
Units of power are watts
71. Machine DEVICE FOR MULTIPLYING FORCE
Does not supply energy
Mechanical advantage = force output/force input
72. Heat and Temperature Temperature is a measurement of the tendency to gain or loose heat
Heat is energy which can be transferred
73. First Law of Thermodynamics
74. Stress Force on a given area
Stress = force/area
75. Thermal Expansion An increase in heat will cause an object to expand
Expansion is constant for a given material
Expansion is constant in all directions
76. Thermometry Liquid expansion Thermometers
Bimetallic Strip Thermometer
Thermocouples
Thermistors
Radiation Thermometry
77. HEAT Calorie is the unit of measurement
Calorie is the heat required to raise 1g of water 1o C
78. Heat Capacity Heat required to raise the temperature of a given material
HEAT Capacity = Mass x Specific heat
79. Specific Heat The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1oC
Specific heat of gas<<<<<specific heat of corresponding liquid
80. Effects of heat
Heat of crystallization
Latent heat of fusion
Latent heat of vaporization
81. Factors that affect the rate of change of heat of an object
Heat Capacity (inv proportional)
Temperature gradient (dir proportional)
Surface area (dir proportional)
Forced convection(dir proportional)
82. Heat Transfer
Convection 30%
Conduction 20%
Radiation 40%
Evaporation 10%
83. Convection Heat transfer caused by the movement of a liquid or gas
natural
forced
84. Conduction Transfer of heat by the direct interaction of molecules in a hot area with molecules in a cooler area
Does not involved motion of the body
thermal conductivity of material is a measure of efficiency
Rate of heat loss = (wall area)(thermal conductivity
wall thickness
85. Radiation All bodies absorb or emit electromagnetic radiation including thermal or infrared radiation
Stefan-Bolzman - Total emmissive power
86. Evaporization Heat lost through respiration
87. Body Temperature Average body temperature
Core temperature 37C
Skin temperature 34C
Average Temp 36C
0.66 x core temperature + 0.34 x ave skin temp
2/3 Core 1/3 Shell
88. Session 4 Fluids
89. Pressure P = f/a
P = pressure
f = force
a = area
Pressure is inversely proportional to the cross section of the radius
90. Pascals Principal When an external pressure is applied to confined fluid, it is transmitted unchanged to every point within the fluid
91. Pressure is inversely proportional to the cross section of the radius
92. Buoyancy
buoyancy is the upward force on an object produced by the surrounding liquid or gas in which it is fully or partially immersed, due to the pressure difference of the fluid between the top and bottom of the object.
93. Archimedes Principles An object immersed either totally or partially in a fluid feels a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
94. Hydrodynamics Moving fluids Flow Rates
The volume of fluid passing a particular point per unit time Velocity
95. Bernoulli Law states that the pressure of a fluid varies inversely with speed, an increase in speed producing a decrease in pressure (such as a drop in hydraulic pressure as the fluid speeds up flowing through a constriction in a pipe) and vice versa
96. Venturi Tube Flowmeter
97. Venturi cont The Venturi effect is the fluid pressure that results when an incompressible fluid flows through a constricted section of pipe.
98. Surface Tension The force per unit length acting across any line in the surface and tending to pull the surface apart across the lines
Temperature
99. Surface Tension
100. Viscosity A measure of the resistance of a fluid to deform under shear stress. It is commonly perceived as "thickness", or resistance to pouring.
101. Laminar Flow When a fluid streams through a tube, the particles comprising the fluid
102. Poiseuilles Law Poiseulle determined that the laminar flow rate of an incompressible fluid along a pipe is proportional to the fourth power of the pipe's radius. To test his idea, we'll show that you need sixteen tubes to pass as much water as one tube twice their diameter.
103. Reynolds Number For a given liquid and tube there is a critical flow rate above
which the flow will become turbulent
Proportional to viscosity
Inversely Proportional to density
Inversely proportional to the radius of tube
104. Turbulence
105. Session 5 Solubility
106. Density Density= Mass/Volume
107. Absolute humidity refers to the mass of water in a particular volume of air
108. Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity = density of substance/density of water
109. Diffusion Process by which the molecules of a substance transfer through a layer or area such as the surface of a solution
Diffusion can still take place without a membrane or gas-liquid barrier
Process of molecular intermingling
Molecular movement and should not be confused with movement in bulk, for which some external force like gravity must apply
110. Gas diffusion
111. Solubility Henrys Law
Temperature effect
Coefficient of solubility
Bunsen Solubility Ostwalds Solubility Coefficient
Meyer Overton
Fick
Graham
112. Osmosis
113. Osmotic Pressure Inversely proportional to the volume of the solution
Proportional to absolute temperature
PV =nRT
114. Solubility Applications Oxygen Therapy
Oxygen therapy for abdominal distention
Air Embolism
Diffusion Hypoxia
Inhalation of gas mixtures at positive pressure
115. Solubility Coefficient
116. Relative Humidity Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in a gaseous mixture of air and water to the saturated vapor pressure of water at a given temperature. That is, a ratio of how much energy has been used to free water from liquid to vapor form to how much energy is left
117. Session 6 Gas Laws
119. Gas Laws Boyles
Charles
Daltons
Henrys Grahams
Gay-Lussacs
Ideal
Ficks
120. BOYLES
V/T=CONSTANT
P1V1 = P2V2
121. Boyles law
122. Charles Law
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
123. Charles / Guy Lussacs
124. Daltons Law
P =P1 + P2 + P3
125. Henrys Law The amount of a non reacting gas which dissolves in liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas, provided the temperature remains constant
126.
127. Ficks Law Fick's First Law is used in steady state diffusion, i.e., when the concentration within the diffusion volume does not change with respect to time (Jin=Jout).
128. Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT
P = pressure
V = volume
n = Mass or number of gas molecules
R = gas constant (8.317J / mole K)
T= absolute temperature
129. Joule-Thompson Effect is a process in which the temperature of a real gas is either decreased or increased by letting the gas expand freely at constant enthalpy (which means that no heat is transferred to or from the gas, and no external work is extracted).
130. Adiabatic Compression Compression in which no heat is added to or subtracted from the air and the internal energy of the air is increased by an amount equivalent to the external work done on the air. The increase in temperature of the air during adiabatic compression tends to increase the pressure on account of the decrease in volume alone; therefore, the pressure during adiabatic compression rises faster than the volume diminishes
131. Remembering Gas Laws
132. Law of La Place
133. Tension and Pressure Relations for Soap Bubbles
134. Tension and Pressure Relations for Surfactant Deficient Alveoli (ARDS)
135. La Place
136. Applications of Gas Laws
137. Session 7 Vaporization
138. Vaporization Vapor pressure
Boiling point
Concentration of gases
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
139. Heat of Fusion The energy required to change a gram of a substance from the solid to the liquid state without changing its temperature is commonly called it's "heat of fusion". This energy breaks down the solid bonds, but leaves a significant amount of energy associated with the intermolecular forces of the liquid state.
140. Heat of Vaporization
The energy required to change a gram of a liquid into the gaseous state at the boiling point is called the "heat of vaporization". This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the PDV work). For an ideal gas , there is no longer any potential energy associated with intermolecular forces. So the internal energy is entirely in the molecular kinetic energy.
The final energy is depicted here as being in translational kinetic energy, which is not strictly true. There is also some vibrational and rotational energy.
141. Saturated Vapor Pressure The process of evaporation in a closed container will proceed until there are as many molecules returning to the liquid as there are escaping. At this point the vapor is said to be saturated, and the pressure of that vapor (usually expressed in mmHg) is called the saturated vapor pressure. Since the molecular kinetic energy is greater at higher temperature, more molecules can escape the surface and the saturated vapor pressure is correspondingly higher. If the liquid is open to the air, then the vapor pressure is seen as a partial pressure along with the other constituents of the air. The temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure is called the boiling point.
142. Evaporation Ordinary evaporation is a surface phenomenon - some molecules have enough kinetic energy to escape. If the container is closed, an equilibrium is reached where an equal number of molecules return to the surface. The pressure of this equilibrium is called the saturation vapor pressure.
In order to evaporate, a mass of water must collect the large heat of vaporization, so evaporation is a potent cooling mechanism. Evaporation heat loss is a major climatic factor and is crucial in the cooling of the human body
143. Evaporation vs Boiling
144. Boiling Point The boiling point is defined as the temperature at which the saturated vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the surrounding atmospheric pressure. For water, the vapor pressure reaches the standard sea level atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg at 100°C. Since the vapor pressure increases with temperature, it follows that for pressure greater than 760 mmHg (e.g., in a pressure cooker), the boiling point is above 100°C and for pressure less than 760 mmHg (e.g., at altitudes above sea level), the boiling point will be lower than 100°C. As long as a vessel of water is boiling at 760 mmHg, it will remain at 100°C until the phase change is complete. Rapidly boiling water is not at a higher temperature than slowly boiling water. The stability of the boiling point makes it a convenient calibration temperature for temperature scales.
145. Vaporization Vapor Pressures at 200C
Isoflurane 239mmHg
Enflurane 175mmHg
Halothane 243mmHg
Desflurane 669mmHg
Sevofurane
146. Calculating Volumes of Vapor Formed in Vaporizers Volume Vaporized Vp (vapor pressure)
=
Total Gas Flow Patm (atmosphere pressure)
(Vp/760mmhg)(carrier Flow)
volume vaporized = --------------------------------------
1- (Vp/760mmhg
(239/760)(200) (.31)(200ml/min)
VV = ------------------- = ---------------------- = 91ml/min
1 - (329/760) (.69)
147. Generic Vaporizer Schematic
148. Humidity Humidity is the amount of water vapor in an air sample There are three different ways to measure humidity:
absolute humidity
relative humidity,
specific humidity.
149. Specific Humidity Specific Humidity is the ratio of water vapor to air (dry air plus water vapor) in a particular volume of air.
150. Session 8 Acid Base Buffers
151. Chemical Equilibria Starting materials products
Starting materials combine to give products break down into starting materials. These two processes occur simultaneously
152. Le Chatelier Principle Equilibrium is a good thing and nature strives to attain and/ or maintain equilibrium
153. changing concentration If you add products the equilibrium will shift toward reactants. If you remove products the equilibrium will shift towards the product.
Hb + 4O2 Hb(O2)4
Lungs oxygen concentration is high increased oxygen concertration is added to the material equilibrium shifts towards the product ( oxyhemoglobin) trying to undo the increased oxxygen
Cells the oxygen is low the system precieves this as removing reactant equilibrium shift towards the material trying to replace the missing reactant oxygen
Therefore hemoglobin loads up on oxygen in the lungs and dumps oxygen into the cells
154. changing temperature Exothermic reaction evolve energy from the system
Endothermic reactions absorb energy from the system
Therefore: increase in temperature favors endothermic process
155. Changing volume and pressure Changing volume and/or pressure only impacts equilibrium reactions when at least one reactants or products is a gas ( solids and liquids are not compressable)
With respect to hemoglobin when the partial pressure of oxygen is increased equilibrium shifts right ( why giving pure oxygen results in a greater oxygen saturation in the blood)
156. Acid and Bases Acid donates a hydrogen ion to a base
Base accepts a hydrogen ion from an acid
157. Acid Base Pairs HCL H+ + CL-
The H+ ion is a proton
Chloride ion has special relationship with HCL
If the reaction ran in reverse the chloride ion would pick up the hydrogen ion. If the chloride ion took a hydrogen ion that would mean if was acting as a base. Therefore: Chloride is the conjugate base of HCL and HCL is the conjugate acid to chloride
They are conjugate acid-base pairs
158. Conjugate Acid and Bases
159. acid conjugate base of
acid
HCL + H2O CL + H3O+
base conjugate acid of base
160. Strong acid When a strong acid dissolves in water it essentially 100% ionized. That means essentially all of the molecules dissociate into ions.
The reaction is not an equilibrating process, so all of the starting materials are converted into product.
HCL + H2O H3O + CL-
161. Common Strong Acids
162. Strong Bases Bases accept hydrogen ions the strongest possible base is the hydroxide ion OH
A strong base ionizes 100% produces the OH- ion
NaOH Na+ + OH-
163. Strong bases
164. Weak Acids Weak acids are able to donate hydrogen ions to bases but are less determined to do so than strong acids
When weak acid dissolves in water establishes dynamic equilibrium between molecular form and ionized form
HC2H3O2 H+ + C2H3O2-
acetic acid
in water
165. Weak Acids (notice that ions can behave as acids as well as molecular compounds)
166. Weak bases Weak bases do not completely ionize in water
When weak bases dissolve in water it establishes a dynamic equilibrium between the molecular form and the ionized form
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
167. Weak bases
168. Polyprotic acids Diprotic acid has more than one hydrogen ion to donate
H2CO3 carbonic acid
Tripotic Acid has three hydrogen ions to donate
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
169. pH
pH= -log[H+]
170. Buffers The buffer in a solution resists changes in pH
Buffer contains contain weak acid and conjugate base
171. Ka Negative log of Ka is pKa
The concentration of the base is greater than the concentration of the weak acid
Therefore the pH is on the basic side of the pKa
172. pKa (weak acids and weak bases) Weak acids become more unionized as ph decreases
pKa of a weak acid is the pH at which 50% of the weak acid is ionized and 50% is unionized
pKa is different for different weak acids
unionized
pH 1 7.4 8.5 14
pKa
173.
ionized
1 3.5 7.4 14
pH pKa pH pH
The higher the pKa of a weak acid the greater the amount of drug that is unionized at physiologic pH
174. Weak bases A weak base is more unionized as th ph increases
The pKa of a weak base is the pH at which 50% of the weak base is in ionized and 50% ins unionized
The pKa is different for different weak bases
A given weak base may have any pKa however the pKa is constant for a given weak base
175. Weak bases
ionized
1 7.4 9.1 14
pH pH pKa pH
unionized
1 4.5 7.4 14
pH pKa pH pH
176. Session 9 Sine wave
177. Biological Potentials Cell Membrane
Hydrophobic interior
Protein and carbohydrate exterior
Change in ion charges
Sodium pump
178. ECG Resting membrane potential is about 90mV
Rapid loss occurs prior to conduction
Depolorization
Sodium ions move in
Potassium ions move out
Repolorization
Opposite on transfer brings membrane back to negative Active transport
179. ECG cont 1-2 mV
Signals pass through muscle and skin and spread outward
P wave represents atrial depolorization (wave repolorization is hidden in the QRS)
QRS Ventricular depolorization
T wave ventricular repolorization
The larger the muscle the more voltage required and the greater the deflection
180. EMG Shorter duration 5-10mS
Repolarizes very quickly
Do not depolorize in wave like fashion
181. EEG Appearance is important
Slow low frequency cerebral hypoxia
Anesthesia depth is indicated by a decreasing frequency and amplitude
182. Electrodes Used to pick up biological electrical potentials directly at the skin
Skin surface
Moisture
Electrical impedance
183. Amplifiers Measure differences between two sources
Resistance may vary Drift
Range of frequencies is relative constant bandwidth
Ratio of voltage to output Gain measured in decibels
184. Electrical potential initiators Defibrillators
Nerve stimulators
Pacemakers
Pain stimulators
ECT
185. Sine Waves
186. Cathode Ray Tube CRT Todays method of recording Biological Potentials
An electron beam passes through two deflecting devices, one is deflected horizontally (x axis) the othee vertically (y axis). When the beam strikes a fluorescent screen a tracing is produced
The electron beam has negligible inertia therefore: you get a very high frequency response
187. Concept of sine waves Biological processes occur in a repetitive pattern
A sine produces this pattern
188. Sine waves cont Angle A has a different value at each moment because the crank is rotating at a constant rate. D on the vertical axis shows the angle of A corresponding to the different times along the hortizontal axis
189. Wave Length The distance between any two corresponding points in successive cycles (the distance between 2 peaks or troughts)
Horizontal axia
190. Amplitude Maximum displacement of the wave from horizontal axis
191. Frequency Number of cycles which occur in 1 sec.
Cycles per second are called Hertz (Hz)
192. Period of wave motion The time taken for one complete cycle to occur
The reciprocal of frequency
T=1/f
193. Velocity of a wave in motion
Velocity = frequency x wavelength
194. waves Different waves have different velocities
If the velocity is fixed-then the frequency and wavelength are inter-related
The higher the frequency the shorter the wave length and vice versa
195. Sound Waves
196. Sound waves cont Sound waves of different frequencies are picked up by the ear as changes in pitch
Sound waves with high frequency, short wave length = high pitch note
Sound wave with a low frequency, long wave length =low pitch
197. Sound waves cont Sound waves are regions of higher and low pressure in the air and travel at a fixed velocity. As the object producing sound mover closer to you, each high pressure region becomes closer to the previous one and the wave length becomes shorter. You pick up this frequency as a higher pitch. Vice versa
Doppler effect
198. Sound waves cont ultra sonic detectors Ultrasonic waves are beamed along an artery and the red blood cells reflect these high frequency sounds waves. The movement of the RBCs give a Doppler change in frequency
199. Sound waves cont When sound wave and other waves reach a boundary between two different substances, part of the wave is transmitted and part is reflected. Sound waves- the difference in the density between the two the two materials determine how much of the wave tis transmitted and how much is reflected.
200. Sound waves cont If an ultra sound transducer is used, the wave must pass between air (low density) and a solid structure (high density) the signal can be attenuated
Gel reduces density
201. Sound waves cont Ultrasound waves can also be used to form images of body structures become the wave are reflected off boundaries and interfaces between substances of different densities.
202. Sine waves The addition of whole range sine waves, each with different frequencies, may result in quite a complex wave form.
The range is important in the design and use of monitoring equipment.
Wave forms can be produced by addin appropriate sine waves
203. Fourier Analysis Mathematical process of analyzing complex patterns into a series of simple sine wave patterns.
.5Hz
Frequency
range
100Hz
Wave patterns that have sharp spikes have high frequencies, smooth rounded waves have a more limited range of frequencies
204. Light Waves
205. Light waves cont Light wave motion with high frequency and short wave length = blue
Color spectrum
Light wave motion with lower frequency and longer wavelength = red
206. Light waves cont Visible light is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum and includes
Radio waves
Infrared waves
Infrared radiation
Gamma and X-rays
Visible light
Visible and infrared
207. Light waves cont Ultrasound have a limit to the power which can be absorbed by tissue with harm. Absorbed power raises temperature
Cavitations
208. The relationship between absorbance and transmittance is illustrated in the following diagram:
209. The amount of radiation absorbed may be measured in a number of ways: Transmittance, T = P / P0% Transmittance, %T = 100 T Absorbance, A = log10 P0 / PA = log10 1 / T A = log10 100 / %TA = 2 - log10 %T
210. Section 10 Electricity
211. Basic Principles of Electricity Fundamental force of nature
Electrical force is the force between two objects on their charge
Charge is a basic property of two of the elementary particles (protons and electrons)
Electrical force can be attraction or repulsion
The force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the objects
212. Basic principles cont Ohms Law (electrons to pass through their conduction band with very little effort)
V = I + R
V = electromotive force
I = current
R = resistance
213. Basic principles cont DC = electron flow is always in the same direction
214. Basic principles cont AC = electron flow reverses direction at regular intervals
215. Basic principles cont Capacitance = measure of the ability of object to hold charge
216. Basic principles cont Inductance = is the magnetic field induced around the wire when electron flow is in the wire
217. Basic principles cont Impedance (Z) = forces that oppose electron movement in an AC circuit. ( a more complicated form of resistance that includes capacitance and inductance.
218. Basic principles cont Series circuits = current flows through each object one after another
219. Basic principles cont Parallel = current divides every time it come to a junction different currents flow through the different objects
220. Basic principles cont Grounding
Electrical power
Grounded
Ungrounded
Electrical equipment
221. Basic principles cont ungrounded power
222. Basic principles cont grounded power
223. Basic principles cont Conductors
224. Basic principles cont Insulator a substance in which a charge cannot easily move
225. Basic principles cont Semiconductor material whose conduction charges as a result of an external force
Thermistor as temp increases resistance decreases
Photodector switch
Diode
Transistor
226. Basic principles cont Static electricity ( rubbing amber against material can lead to a transfer of electrons, so that one will have an excess of the and the other a deficit)
227. Basic principles cont Ampere (unit of current)
electromagnetic force
6.24 x 10 to the 18 electrons per minute
228. Electrical Hazards in the OR Whenever an individual contacts an external source of electricity Shock is possible
229. Electrical Hazards in the OR Sources of electroshock
Macroshock > 1 mA
Microshock < 1 mA
Conducting fluids
Electrosurgery
230. Electrical Hazards in the OR Macroshock sources Severity depends on the amount and duration of current flow
Occur when patient becomes the conduit through which current flows toward ground
Isolated system in the OR provides significant protection from macroshock
231. Electrical Hazards in the OR Microshock sources Pacer wires
Swan Ganz catheter
CVP catheter
Leakage*
*partially ungrounded power source
232. Electrical Hazards in the OR Current can interfere with signal from ECG and other monitors
If electrode is applied incorrectly a defective wire current will seek the path of least resistance
Patient
ECG or temperature probe
233. Electrical Hazards in the OR (LIM) Isolation power system provides an ungrounded electrical service for various applications within a hospital. These isolation power systems remain in operation in the event of a single line-to-ground fault situation. The system also eliminate the danger of an electric shock to patients who may be more susceptible to leakage current.
234. Electrical Hazards in the OR (LIM)
235. Electrical Hazards in the OR Summary
All electrical equipment must undergo preventative maintenance, service and inspection
Protect patients from contact with earth
236. Electrical Hazards in the OR summary Water on floor is dangerous
Protect susceptible patients
Uses common sense
Be vigilant
237. Final Exam MAY