On the Definition of Work

1. On the Definition of Work Presentation to Centre for Work and Life Chris Provis School of Management, UniSA 27 Feb 2009

2. ‘Work’: preliminary • frequent connotations: unpleasant, paid • clearly not necessary conditions • last weekend I was working in the garden • ‘work’ because it was productive? • of what? CWL 270209

3. Social Context of ‘Work’ • often institutionalised • Can institutional participants give definition? • Ferguson: enough that ‘those doing the activity should have the decisive say as to whether their activity counts as work’ • Hall: must be ‘considered work by the individual involved’ • but clear problems from possible mistake CWL 270209

4. Varying social contexts • institutionalised contexts vary widely • e.g. residential aged care, panelbeating,university research • Do they have anything in common? • Parry et al: • ‘areas as diverse as prostitution, voluntary work, fathering and community work’ • understanding needed of ‘what constitutes work’ • But do we need to find a common element? CWL 270209

5. Significance of the issue:law • e.g. contract of service • ‘obedience to orders in doing work, …’(Kitto J, in Attorney-General for NSW v Perpetual Trustee Co Ltd [1952]) • definition affects legal entitlements CWL 270209

6. Significance of the issue:labour economics and policy • employment statistics :‘a person must have been engaged in some economic activity (work)’ [sic] (ABS, Labour Statistics: Concepts, Sources and Methods, 2006) • definition affects investment, public policy CWL 270209

7. Significance of the issue:feminist theory and public policy • domestic activities as work, mostly unpaid, mainly by women • role in theories of exploitation • but contentious: ‘Is a mother playing with her baby working or engaged in play?’(Ferguson, ‘Feminist perspectives on class and work’,Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2004) CWL 270209

8. Significance of the issue: sociological theory • definitions of social structure • e.g. Marx, role of labour in class definition, etc • where ‘labour’ = ‘work’(Marx & Engels, Selected Works, Moscow 1969: see index) • or whether managerial functions are ‘work’(cf Mintzberg, The Nature of Managerial Work, 1980) CWL 270209

9. Significance of the issue:psychological theory • ‘central place in shaping individuals’ identities’(Fouad & Bynner, American Psychologist, 2008) • ‘can be essential for psychological health’(Blustein, American Psychologist, 2008) • ‘functions to meet needs for survival, relatedness and self-determination’(Blustein, American Psychologist, 2008) CWL 270209

10. Significance of the issue:religious practice • distinction between work and non-work • ritual significance for many religions • historical significance: religious attitudes to work tied to wider social practices(e.g. Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,[1904–5] 1930) CWL 270209

11. Summary so far idea of ‘work’ • is difficult, vague, ill-defined • plays key role in theory • plays key role in social arrangements CWL 270209

12. Is there a common factor? Not: • effort (neither necessary nor sufficient) • ‘productive’ (too hard to define) • necessarily for others (too restrictive) • only physical, cognitive or emotional • only individual or collaborative • etc CWL 270209

13. Is work a ‘cluster concept’? • Wittgenstein: e.g. ‘game’ • instances united by ‘family resemblance’ • then perhaps replace by precise concept? • as in science: e.g. mass, velocity, etc • or in law: e.g. vessel • adopt definition that gives most fruitful and useful concept CWL 270209

14. Essentially contested concept • precision suiting one area may not suit all • one area uses or contests another’s idea • definitions of work challenge institutions • what notion will be ‘most fruitful and useful’ is just what is in contention • e.g. line between work and family life • analogy with ‘democracy’ • the term may not be useful for theory or policy CWL 270209

15. Do without the concept? • in theorising ‘exploitation’, use ideas like ‘benefit’, ‘informed consent’, etc • in assessing tax, replace ‘work’ with ‘personal exertion’ • in fostering investment, think about worth to individuals and communities • in social relations, think about functions of an activity in market exchange • etc CWL 270209

16. Loose end • people’s attitudes are affected by whether something is generally considered ‘work’ • analogy with ‘democracy’ • rhetorical, ideological function • but theory and policy ought not be driven by rhetoric and ideology • attitudes can follow clear theory and policy CWL 270209