At some margins, the plate are diverging (moving apart)

1. At some margins, the plate are diverging • (moving apart) • -- Called rift zones on continental plates • -- Called midocean ridges on oceanic plates • New seafloor is being created at the • midocean ridges • This is the answer to Wegener’s dilemma..

2. The Mid- Atlantic Ridge D. S. Kelley et al., Nature (2001)

3. A mid-ocean ridge vent (“black smoker”)On-axis vent(~400oC)Black material isFeS (iron sulfide) Kump et al (2000)

4. Off-axis vent (~60oC) Carbonate chimney (8 m) Aragonite and brucite flange Lost City ventfield SEM picture of ‘b’ Filamentous microbial communities Kelley et al. (2001)

5. How do we know that the seafloor is spreading? Answer: We look at the magnetic patterns on the seafloor

6. Earth’s magnetic field-- Dipole field (N and S poles), like a bar magnet Kump et al (2000)

7. The magnetic field is not always oriented • in the same direction. Every once in awhile, • it reverses polarity, i.e. the north pole • becomes the south pole, and vice versa.. • Where else does this happen?

8. On the Sun.. Picture of the Sun’s corona showing the influence of magnetic field lines

9. The Sunspot Cycle • Sunspot number • goes from low • to high and back • again every 11 • years • Solar magnetic • field reverses • polarity on this • same time cycle • Magnetic field is • created by the • solar dynamo

10. “Butterfly Diagram From G. Albetti, The Sun, 2nd ed. (1969)

11. Earth’s magnetic field reversals occur • over longer time scales and are not as • regular • Earth’s field is generated by the • geomagnetic dynamo • Definition: dynamo—generation of a • magnetic field by motions within a • convecting, conducting fluid

12. Question: In what parts of the solid Earth does convection occur?

13. What parts of the solid Earth convect? • The outer core • This is where the magnetic field is generated • The mantle • This is what drives plate tectonics

14. Brunhes Geomagnetic Field Reversals Matayama Normal polarity Reversed polarity Gauss Gilbert 5 Ma (Epochs)

15. The geological record of magnetic reversals from lava flow on land Kump et al (2000)

16. Sea-floor spreading as indicated by magnetic stripes Kump et al (2000)

17. Internal structure of the Earth, the top 300 km Kump et al (2000)

18. Three types of plate boundaries (a) divergent (discussed already) (b) convergent(discussed next) (c) transform fault(discussed at the end) Does it make a difference what kind of plates are converging? Kump et al (2000)

19. Three types of convergent plate boundaries oceanic-continental: - oceanic lithosphere is denser. - subduction of a slab. - deep sea trenches and earthquakes (..Japan) • oceanic-oceanic: • important dehydration and • decarbonization reactions. • cycling of water and carbon (more • later) • continental-continental: • continental crust is too buoyant to • be subducted. • crust crumbles and forms • mountains Kump et al (2000)

20. Transform faults Danger: Earthquake zone! Kump et al (2000)

21. Final concept: The Wilson Cycle • Supercontinents (like Pangea) form and break • apart over about a 400-500 m.y. cycle Asia Pangaea (250 Ma) NA Africa SA

22. Final concept: The Wilson Cycle • Supercontinents (like Pangea) form and break apart over about a 400-500 m.y. cycle • Sequence of events: • Supercontinent forms from collisions of smaller continents • Heat builds up beneath the supercontinent, causing it to rift apart • Small pieces of the supercontinent drift off in all directions • Eventually they run into each other and form a new supercontinent