The American Revolution Military Campaigns,1776-1781

1. The American RevolutionMilitary Campaigns,1776-1781 Teaching American History

2. British Strategy as of 1776 • The battles of Boston led the British to realize that they were up against something far more than mob violence. They thus decided to isolate the New England colonies (especially Massachusetts) and hoped to draw Washington into a decisive – war ending – battle. Boston, the British believed, was the center of the insurgency and need to be isolated and punished. But it was not the proper center for battle. Furthermore, the ports of New England, they believed, could be held with British ships and the Middle Colonies were said to have a greater number of Loyalists who would join in the fighting against the rebels. They therefore sailed into New York (where ostensibly the population was more sympathetic) with 30,000 troops (including both British regulars and Hessians) and the goal of pushing North until Boston was cut off and Washington was forced to engage the British.

3. The New York Campaign: Howe Lands • June – July, 1776 –Howe landed a massive army and navy at New York Harbor. British forces include 30 ships, 1200 cannons, 30,000 soldiers, 10,000 sailors, and 300 supply ships. 8000 of the soldiers are Hessians. The Americans deeply resent the use of foreign troops who are known to be ruthless. This invasion was supported by a British fleet commanded by William Howe’s brother, Richard. One colonist remarks “It looks like all London has floated here.” This is the largest invading force that the British army employed until the 20 century.

4. Eighteenth Century “Shock and Awe” • At one point, Howe engaged in a demonstration of British naval power by sailing two of his Frigates – the Phoenix and the Rose – down the Hudson furiously firing their cannons. He then asks for a meeting with Washington under flag of truce and sends his adjutant general to explain that he has the possibility of negotiating and offering pardons. Washington refuses.

5. Washington moves to met the British at New York • New York is not easily defended. It is an island and the Americans do not have a navy. Nevertheless, Congress believed that it could not be given up without a fight and Washington agreed. He thus quickly moved 23,000 troops into New York City to defend the city and divided them between Long Island and Manhattan. Washington is often criticized for dividing his troops in the face of an opponent with a greater number of troops.

6. Battle of Long Island (Sometimes Called the Battle of Brooklyn) • On August 27, 1776, the British and Americans engaged on the tip of Long Island at what is now Brooklyn. The Americans initially held the high ground, but the British circle behind them using the (unguarded) Jamaica Pass. Once encircled, the Americans flee and are slaughtered. They retreat to Brooklyn Heights and are trapped against the East River. Washington and almost the entire Continental army faced capture and defeat. But at night in the fog, Washington evacuated his troops to Manhattan by rowboat.

7. New York City as a Prison • The British hold New York City and the surrounding area for the entire war. New York City becomes a large prison for captured American troops many of whom are put onto prison ships. Over 12,000 Americans die in these prisons during the war, more than die on the battlefield.

8. Battle of Harlem Heights • September, 16, 1776 – The British then pursued Washington and his troops into Manhattan. Washington withdrew to Harlem Heights and British and American troops fought a non-decisive battle there on September 16th.

9. Battle of White Plains and Capture of Fort Washington and Fort Lee • A month later, Howe then attempted to encircle Washington again. Washington retreated but encountered the British at White Plains on October 28th. Howe does not pursue Washington further, but rather returns to Manhattan and takes Fort Washington and Fort Lee. Americans have a large cache of military stores at Fort Washington, including 100 cannons and 1000s of muskets. Since these are manufactured in Britain, they cannot be replaced. Howe is often criticized for not pursuing Washington. Many military strategists believe that he could have brought the war to an end. But Howe takes Long Island and Manhattan and kills or captures over 5000 Americans. He also captures many of their supplies. As Americans retreat, the city is burned (possibly by Americans trying to prevent the British from making use of the resources in the city). The battles of New York teach Washington that he must avoid direct, decisive confrontations with the British.

10. Washington retreats (Winter, 1776) • Washington and his troops retreat across New Jersey, the Delaware River, and eventually into Pennsylvania. After Washington’s defeats in New York in 1776, there is open talk in the American army of replacing him. It is at this time (December, 1776) that Thomas Paine, who is with Washington’s army during the retreat from New York, writes in The American Crisis: “THESE are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands by it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly: it is dearness only that gives every thing its value. Heaven knows how to put a proper price upon its goods; and it would be strange indeed if so celestial an article as FREEDOM should not be highly rated.” This work is originally written on a drum head. Washington orders that it be read to his troops.

11. British Give Chase into New Jersey (1776) • Howe deploys brigade garrisons into six New Jersey towns and these garrisons are joined by Loyalist militias who engage in a series of local battles with rebels. Cornwallis also pursues Washington until he moves into Pennsylvania. • Howe extends an offer of pardon to rebels that is accept by at least 3,000 Americans, including one signer of the Declaration of Independence.

12. Washington’s Brilliant (Desperate) Gamble: Victory at Trenton and Princeton • The enlistments of over half of the troops that Washington commands are nearly up. His generals are bickering among themselves. Charles Lee wants to fight a guerilla war, but Washington and his core of officers want to fight a European style conflict. In the face of these difficulties and as the British go into winter quarters, Washington engages in a surprise counterattack on December 25-26, 1776 at Trenton. Famously crossing (re-crossing) the Delaware on December 25th, 1776, Washington captures over 1200 Hessians at the Battle of Trenton. A week later on January 3rd, 1777, Cornwallis and his troops move to retake Trenton, but Washington successfully attacks the reguard of Cornwallis’ troops at Princeton, New Jersey. Washington’s victories at Trenton and Princeton are of limited strategic value, but they boost the morale of the army. Washington and his soldiers then go into winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey.

13. Washington Crossing the Delaware (Emanuel Leutze,1851)

14. British Strategy of 1777 • In the war for the long haul, the British now decided to employ a force of 8,000 under the leadership of General John Burgoyne southward from Canada to seize Lake Champlain and the Hudson river corridor. Burgoyne’s forces were then to meet up with Generals Howe and St. Leger who were advancing north from New York and East from the Mohawk Valley respectively. The goal is to isolate New England from the rest of the colonies.

15. 1777 (Burgoyne advances and the British recapture Fort Ticonderoga) • Burgoyne took off in June, 1777. He retook Fort Ticonderoga in July, 1777 by a remarkable feat of military engineering. He was able to fortify Mt. Defiance overlooking the fort. Americans abandon the fort when they see these fortifications above them.

16. Burgoyne continues South • After capturing Fort Ticonderoga, Burgoyne then continued on his journey south to Albany, New York. Americans follow Burgoyne’s army of 8000 troops (including several thousand Native Americans), disrupting and severely slowing his movement. His supply lines were stretched and he was continuously harassed by militia from New England who blocked his path, destroyed bridges, and generally slowed his progress. Famously, his retinue includes 30 carts of Burgoyne’s personal possessions with several cases of champagne that must be dragged through the thick Northeastern forests. Burgoyne’s army must build 40 bridges as they work their way through the forest. They can advance at a pace of only about a mile a day. At one point, Burgoyne sends 1000 troops on a mission to seize supplies but they are defeated by American militia.

17. American Victory at Saratoga • Meanwhile, on September 13-14, Burgoyne crossed the Hudson, cutting off his supply lines and communications with his troops who followed. He then reached Saratoga in early October, 1777, only to be met at Freeman’s Farm by 10,000 to 11,000 Americans of the northern militia led by Horatio Gates who has been appointed by Congress and supported by Daniel Morgan and his riflemen. Morgan’s riflemen hide high in the trees and target British officers (in direct violation of 18th century military practice) Howe is not available to lend support. American and British troops engage in two bloody battles at Saratoga. Eventually, Burgoyne surrenders over 7000 British troops to Horatio Gates and General Benedict Arnold. Arnold is the field general of American forces and the real hero of Saratoga. At the surrender, Burgoyne gave his sword to Gates and remarked: “The fortune of war, General Gates, has made me your prisoner.” Gates returned the sword and said, “I shall always be ready to bear testimony that it has not been through any fault of your Excellency.”

18. General John Burgoyne surrenders to Horatio Gates

19. Saratoga (The Turning Point) • Saratoga leads the French, who have been looking for signs of American strength, to formally enter the war. France had been secretly aiding the American Revolutionaries with money and arms, but now in February, 1788, they signed a military alliance with the United States. For Britain, the entrance of the French leads to the expansion of the colonial conflict into a world war in which the American Revolution is but a sideshow. Eventually, the French engage the English in their colonies in India, South America, off the coast of South Africa, and in the Caribbean and there is talk that they will even invade England.

20. Saratoga (The Turning Point) • Led to a change in command: Sir Henry Clinton replaced General Howe. • Led to a change in theater and tactics: the British switched to the South and used new tactics, including buying off American leaders, the use of more ruthless tactics including bombardment of American ports, and a policy of pacification. The British now abandoned Philadelphia and relocated their troops to the West Indies. They then aimed to secure Southern ports and with the use of Loyalists work their way North restoring British rule.

21. Howe captures Philadelphia • As Burgoyne presses south, Howe – who was supposed to join him at Albany – decides instead to attack Philadelphia first. In August 1777, he captures the city, but he does not have time to get back to help Burgoyne. Howe’s decision, in effect, created a two front war and led to British defeat in one front.

22. On the Philadelphia Front • Washington responds to Howe’s attack of Philadelphia by engaging the British. • September 11th – Washington is defeated at Brandywine as both sides incur heavy casualties. • September 26th - The British Capture Philadelphia, but capturing the capital in America does not mean defeat of the American army.

23. Valley Forge • In December, after his defeats at both Brandywine and Germantown, Washington and his troops goes into winter quarters at Valley Forge. They stay there for six months and 2,500 out of 10,000 die from disease and exposure to the cold. In the beginning of the spring, the remaining troops begin a training program under Baron Van Steuben.

24. Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey, June 28, 1778 • Under their new commander, General Clinton, the British decide to evacuate Philadelphia and reinforce New York City which is now vulnerable to French naval power. As Clinton withdraws his troops from Philadelphia in June, 1778, Washington orders an attack. American troops under the command of Baron von Steuben and British forces fight to a draw.

25. The Southern Theater

26. Southern Theater, 1778-1783 • The entry of the French into the American Revolution leads the British to chart a new strategy and move the theater of the war to the South. New York and the New England ports are harder and costlier to hold. Furthermore, the British need to keep the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean to defend their colonies there from French attack. This is easier with their fleet in the Southern colonies. The British also believe that more loyalist support can be found in the South and begin the tactic of pacification. Pacification means using military victories to bring out loyalist support, put Loyalists in charge of the government and militia of the area, and then turn the region back to support of the Crown. The British arm Loyalists who, in turn, seek revenge against the Patriots. Much of the Southern conflict pits Loyalists against Patriots in acts of bitter reprisal.

27. Blacks in the Revolution

28. Slaves and the American Revolution (Dunmore’s Proclamation) • In addition to pacification, the British also hope to employee former slaves in support of their cause. Many slaves view the American Revolution as an opportunity for freedom and escaped to fight for or follow the British. Far more slaves sided with the British than with the Americans. The British actively recruited slaves as soldiers from the beginning of the Revolution. In November, 1775, Lord Dunmore – royal governor of Virginia – issued a proclamation promising freedom to the slaves of Patriot masters if they fought for the British. This led to the formation of the famous Royal Ethiopian Regiment of approximately 800 men. They wore shirts proclaiming “Liberty to Slaves.”

29. Americans’ Reaction to Dunmore’s Proclamation • American Revolutionaries viewed Dunmore’s Proclamation as an assault on their property in slaves. The prospect of armed insurrection by slaves wielding British weapons against their owners also excited great fear among slave-owners. Washington’s correspondence during 1775-1776 suggests that he believed that Dunmore’s proclamation has the possibility of leading 1000s of slaves to join the British. Washington concluded that this has to be contained. For many Americans, it also seemed to be evidence that the British would do anything to defeat the Americans. And it led them to be even more committed to the cause. In the South, the American Revolution thus becomes a paradoxical effort to insure “liberty” against British tyranny while preserving slavery.

30. Virginia’s Counter Proclamation • In 1775, Virginia issued a response to Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation that reminded slaves that Dunmore’s offer extended only to the males slaves owned by revolutionaries, not women or the slaves of loyalists. It also observed that slaves would have to make a decision between staying with their families and joining the British. It also reminded them of the penalty for insurrection, which was death.

31. Blacks Who Joined the British Cause • “Colonel” Tye – Titus, a slave who had a cruel Quaker master before the Revolution, became a hero of the Revolutionary War and is perhaps the best remembered black soldier. • Colonel Tye escaped his owner the day after Dunmore’s proclamation and fought vehemently and passionately for the British for the next five years. After an initial service in the Ethiopian regiment, he returned to his native area of New Jersey and became the leader of approximately 800 men who conducted guerrilla raids against American Patriots. He killed many Patriots, burned and looted the homes of slaveholders, and freed many slaves. He died in 1780 when a gunshot wound that he received to his wrist in a raid became infected.

32. Blacks Who Sided with the Americans • Unlike the British, the Americans did not – initially at least – allow blacks to serve in the army. When he took command of the Continental Army in 1775, Washington barred the further recruitment of black soldiers, even though blacks had fought with the Patriots at the battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill. Washington lifted the ban that he had placed on black soldiers in 1776 out of sheer necessity for the recruitment of more troops. By the winter of 1777-1778, the Continental army was down to 18,000 troops. This led Washington to change his mind and to approve the formation of the Rhode Island Regiment. The service of blacks in the Continental army had a profound effect on the moral evolution of George Washington’s views on slavery.

33. Motivations of Slaves Who Fought with the Americans • Some were offered their freedom if they fought. Furthermore, it was by no means certain that former slaves would have been given their freedom if the British would have won. They might simply have had to remain in the British army the rest of their lives. The status of these slaves was uncertain and they had to calculate about who was likely to win the Revolution and what that event would mean for their lives.

34. Southern Theater, 1778-1783 (continued) • Americans lose a series of engagements in the South as the British attempt to regain control of the nation by building up from the South. British capture Georgia in 1778-1779. They abolish the existing republican state constitution, reimpose monarchical rule on the state, and arrest those who support Independence. They then launch a series of assaults on the Carolinas from their base in Georgia.

35. British Capture Charlestown • May 12, 1780 British capture Charlestown, South Carolina. Henry Clinton defeats General Benjamin Lincoln and an American army of 5,500. Resistance collapses in Georgia.

36. British Victory at Camden, April, 1780 • The defeat of Lincoln in Charlestown leads Washington to dispatch the hero of Saratoga, General Horatio Gates to South Carolina. Gates rushes to confront Cornwallis and suffers a major defeat on August, 16, 1780 at Camden, South Carolina. This is one of the most devastating defeats for the Americans in the war as Gates and his troops flee after bayonet charges by the British. Americans resort to guerilla tactics to fight the British in the Carolinas.

37. Battle of King’s Mountain • Badly needing a victory, the Americans get one in late 1780 when backcountry militiamen defeat Loyalists at the Battle of King’s Mountain

38. Nathaniel Greene takes command of the Southern theater, 1780 • Greene quickly rebuilds his troops and then divides them. He trains one group, but allows a second under the command of Daniel Morgan to engage the British. The British under Cornwallis case Greene’s army across the South and exhaust his troops. Cornwallis has an army of British regulars, Hessians, Loyalists, and is followed by several thousand blacks who forage and labor for his troops. Greene wins no battles, but he keeps moving. Also, unlike the British, he understands that he must “win the hearts and minds” of the people in the South if the Revolutionaries are to be victorious. The British engage in slash and burn tactics and alienate many who might have been sympathetic to them.

39. Battle of Cowpens • Morgan defeats Banastre Tarleton at Cowpens, in southern South Carolina on January 17, 1780. This is an important victory for the Americans as it gives them back a hold on some of the South.

40. Greene engages Cornwallis at Guilford Court House in March, 1781 • This is a British victory, but they incur substantial loses in this battle.

41. Battle of Yorktown – 1781 • Cornwallis eventually retreats to the Virginia coastline with the goal of setting up a camp on the sea where he can be easily enforced. His troops dig in and await reenforces by sea from Clinton

42. Capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown is planned as a joint operation. • In blank, Washington learns from the French General Rochambeau that the French Admiral Count de Grasse has a large fleet in the Caribbean that will be available for operations for a two week period. A joint operation is planned in which 11000 or so American troops (including some of the best of Washington’s army and Greene’s southern troops) will join forces with 6000 French troops under the direction of Rochambeau to capture Cornwallis at Yorktown.

43. DeGrasse engages the British Navy • As Admiral de Grasse nears the Chesapeake he engages in battle with a British fleet. Outnumbered, the British retreat to New York for reinforcements. De Grasse then seals off the Chesapeake, insuring that Cornwallis cannot be reenforced, but the Americans and French can secure supplies.

44. The Battle of Yorktown • The American and French armies have a combined force of 17,000. Cornwallis’ has only 8,000 to 9,000 troops. Fighting lasts for several weeks, but the Americans and French weaken the British with shelling, then attack them. British supplies run short, creating additional problems for the outnumbered British army.

45. Cornwallis Surrenders to Washington • Realizing that defeat is inevitable, Cornwallis surrenders to the Americans and French. Washington arrives theatrically and disciplines his troops, telling them not to taunt the British. “Posterity will huzzah for us,” he declares. Clinton arrives with British reenforcements a week after surrender at Yorktown.

46. “The World Turned Upside Down.” • Tradition has it that the British army band played the British folksong “The World Turned Upside Down” at Yorktown. Unfortunately, this is probably not true, but it ought to be. The lyrics include: “If ponies road men and grass at cows, if summer were spring, and the other way round, then all the world would be upside down.”

47. American Troops stay in the Field • Even after Yorktown, American troops stay in the field for two additional years until the British evacuate. Washington fears that the British will start the war again if the troops do not stay organized. Remember, the British continue to occupy New York, Charlestown, and many areas of the United States.

48. Paris Peace Treaty (1783) • One of the Greatest Achievements in American Diplomatic History. The fledgling United States gains recognition of its independence and expansive boundaries: west to the Mississippi, south to the 31st parallel, and north to Canada.