The Notion of Context in

1. The Notion of Context in “Information Interaction in Context” Tefko Saracevic, PhD Rutgers University tefkos@rutgers.edu; http://comminfo.rutgers.edu/~tefko/

2. Central ideas • Everybody knows what is context.RIGHT!RIGHT? ?? ??? • Everybody knows where to look for context.RIGHT!RIGHT? ?? ??? Tefko Saracevic

3. Problems at hand • Theoretical: Finding a conceptual foundation for CONTEXT in the context of human-information interaction • Practical: In searching for information using not only CONTENT information from a query (as we do now well), but also CONTEXT information (as we do now badly, or not at all) • Dealing here with A only Tefko Saracevic

4. ToC • Human-information interaction • Context • Five axioms related to context in information interaction • Implications Tefko Saracevic

5. User – information – [and what else?] 1. Human-information interaction Tefko Saracevic

6. Elements, processes to consider Tefko Saracevic

7. Information What do we mean by it? “Information is anything that can change person’s knowledge.” (Belkin, 1978) Informationas we consider it includes • objects in the world potentially conveying information • what is transferred from people or objects to a person’s cognitive system • components of internal knowledge in people’s mind Tefko Saracevic

8. What do we mean by it? Process in which humans purposefully engage in order to change their state of knowledge (Marchionini, 1995) A conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your knowledge(Case, 2002) The process of construction within information seeking involves fitting information in with what one already knows and extending this knowledge to create new perspectives (Kuhlthau, 2004) Information seeking Tefko Saracevic

9. Information seeking concentrations • Purposeful process to: • change state of knowledge • respond to an information need or gap • fit information in with what one already knows • All cognitive: To seek information people seek to change the state of their knowledge • Some critiques: Broader social, cultural, environmental … factors not included Tefko Saracevic

10. What do we mean by it? • “HCI is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them.” (CHI Curriculum, 1996, 2009) • Many fields and areas involved • CHI conferences huge, popular • in these conferences next to nothing on context; but some papers consider social impact • note: is CHI the same as HCI? Human-computer interaction Tefko Saracevic

11. CHI concentrations • Primary concentration on interfaces – that is where interaction occurs • design, effectiveness, innovations, issues … • includes both software and hardware • Important part: user satisfaction • however, no rigorous definition what it means • often mixed with usability, usefulness • no theoretical base Tefko Saracevic

12. What do we mean by it? • “... the interactive communication processes that occur during the retrieval of information by involving all the major participants in IR, i.e. the user, the intermediary, and the IR system.” (Ingwersen, 1992) • Often distinguished as direct (or end user searching) and mediated IR system-user interaction Tefko Saracevic

13. Concentrations Direct (end user searching) A process where users interact with and search an IR system by and for themselves • prevalent today; everybody is a searcher Mediation: A process where an intermediary – a searcher – acts on behalf of a user who seeks information Informal mediators: colleagues, friends, family … Formal mediators: searchers, teachers … • but is disappearing fast in academic & public institutions, not so in commerce & some fields Tefko Saracevic

14. What do we mean by it? • "how human beings interact with, relate to, and process information regardless of the medium connecting the two." (Nahum Gershon, 1995, credited with coining the term) • At CHI 2006 a debate: is it a separate field? Human-information interaction Tefko Saracevic

15. Michigan IS • “Research in this area [i.e. HII] examines the behavior of people in the use of information embedded in systems, services, networks, and devices (information seeking, intermediation, information retrieval, design and evaluation of information systems and services, information visualization, and information use in various environments).” Tefko Saracevic

16. and at IS, Washington(Center for Human-information Interaction) • “Cognitive Work Analysis provides a multi-pronged analytical framework for studying various human interactions with information. It helps researchers and other professionals to study the work people do, the tasks they perform, the decisions they make, the way they interact with information channels, systems and products, and the collaborative, organizational and social context in which they perform their work—all for the purpose of designing more effective systems and services.” Tefko Saracevic

17. As to: What do we mean by it? • Not quite clear • although intuitively well understood Tefko Saracevic

18. Milieu for interaction 2. Context Tefko Saracevic

19. Context:What do we mean by it? “Context - Linguistic context, context of use: Discourse that surrounds a language and helps to determine its interpretation Context – circumstance, setting: The set of facts or circumstances that surround a situation or event; “the historic context” “ Wordnet • from Latin: contextus  "a joining together," contexere  "to weave together" Tefko Saracevic

20. Concentrations - properties • Language: • surrounds a language • helps in interpreting, giving meaning • Circumstances: • provides a setting • surrounds an event, situation There is no term more often used, less often defined and, when defined, defined so variously, as context. Context has the potential to be virtually anything that is not defined as the phenomenon of interest. Dervin, 1997 Tefko Saracevic

21. Information and context • Is there such a thing as context-free information? Tefko Saracevic

22. and context • Theoretically, context may be considered as “objectified” (entities – actors, structures, attributes - which affect the research object) & “interpretive” (constructing meaning from data) Talja et al 1999 • Many information seeking studies involved TASK or SITUATION as context • But: there is more to task then task itself Information seeking Tefko Saracevic

23. Task assumptions, properties • Information seeking is not an end in itself • It serves a work task • task is a process in relation to which information is needed • Tasks have been categorized from simple to complex (and a number in-between) • complex tasks have a number of sub-tasks • the more complex a task the complexity of information needed increases • Implication: user modeling & searching should be oriented toward tasks Tefko Saracevic

24. HCI theories & context • Many HCI theories derived from various fields • but criticized for not informing design • Theories not strong on context • some exceptions: activity theory; & anthropological argument: human action is constantly constructed and reconstructed from dynamic interactions with the material and social worlds • In design: contextual inquiry & contextual design based on understanding of context of use Human-computer interaction Tefko Saracevic

25. model from:ACM SIGCHI Curricula for Human-Computer Interaction Human-computer interaction Tefko Saracevic

26. and context • “Context is one of the most important concepts in information seeking and retrieval research. However, the challenges of studying context are great; thus, it is more common for researchers to use context as a post hoc explanatory factor, rather than as a concept that drives inquiry.” Kelly (2006) IR system-user interaction Tefko Saracevic

27. Ingwersen model of IR interaction (earliest IR model with explicit context) Social/organizational environment Information objects Interface/ intermediary Individual user’s cognitive space Query Request Interactive communication of cognitive structures Cognitive transformations & influences IR system setting Tefko Saracevic

28. Saracevic’s stratified model of IR interaction Context social, cultural Situational tasks; work context... STRATA Affective intent; motivation ... USER Cognitive Adaptation knowledge; structure... Query characteristics … Surface level INTERACTION & RELEVANCE INTERFACE Use of information Engineering hardware; connections... Processing Adaptation COMPUTER software; algorithms … Content inf. objects; representations... Tefko Saracevic

29. Context in two models Ingwersen Saracevic strata Cognitive knowledge; structure … Affective intent; motivation … Situational task; work context … Social, cultural context • Individual user’s cognitive space • Work task/interests • Current cognitive state • Problem/goal • Uncertainty • Information need • Information behavior • Social/org. environment • Domains/goals • Tasks • Preferences Tefko Saracevic

30. User modeling for searching User modeling is a process of identifying, understanding, and defining user information needs, context, requirements, and preferences, together with factors or attributes in the profile of the user that affect subsequent search for information. Tefko Saracevic

31. Mediation & user modeling • Professional mediation involves diagnosing the user’s problem and identifying what interventions would be helpful • professional searchers mediate the interaction of users with information • In practice user modeling heavily involves context • mediators make many search decisions based on context information Tefko Saracevic

32. IR testing and context • Majority of IR tests rest on traditional model • all TREC tracks with one exception – interactive track • “At its core, the modern-day test collection is little different from the structures that the pioneering researchers in the 1950s and 1960s conceived of.” (Sanderson, 2010) • Context not present • Many calls to change testing model not headed Tefko Saracevic

33. and context Human-information interaction Where is TajMahal? Tefko Saracevic

34. Principles without proof 3.Axioms about context Tefko Saracevic

35. Axiom is …(from Latin axiōma a principle, from Greek axioun to consider worthy) • A principle that is accepted as true without proof • A self-evident or universally recognized truth; a maxim • (Mathematics) a generally accepted proposition or principle, sanctioned by experience; maxim • (Philosophy / Logic) a self-evident statement Tefko Saracevic

36. Inspired by … Paul Watzlawick (1921-2007) Communication axioms In his theory on communication, defined five basic axioms that are necessary to have a functioning communication between two individuals. If one of these axioms is somehow disturbed, communication might fail. • Theoretician in communication theory (Austria, Switzerland, California) Tefko Saracevic

37. Most famous of Watzlawick’s axioms Axiom 1 I.e. - explanation “Every behavior is a kind of communication. Because behavior does not have a counterpart (there is no anti-behavior), it is not possible not to communicate.” One Cannot Not Communicate (Man kann nicht nicht kommunizieren) “… lousy grammar, impeccable logic.” Tefko Saracevic

38. Context: Axiom 1 Statement Id est – i.e. Every interaction is conducted within a context. Because context-less information interaction is impossible, it is not possible not to have a context. One cannot not have a context in information interaction. Tefko Saracevic

39. Axiom 2 Statement Id est It means that all interactions, apart from information derived from meaning of words or terms describing the content, have more information to be derived from context. Every interaction has a content and relationship aspect – context is the later and classifies the former. Tefko Saracevic

40. Axiom 3 Statement Id est Contexts are asymmetric as well. Medium or systems context is primarily about meanings; user context is primarily about situations. The nature of information interaction including context is asymmetric; it involves differing processes and interpretation by parties involved. Tefko Saracevic

41. Axiom 4 Statement Id est In interactions it is customary to consider direct context, but context extends indirectly to broader social context also. Context is multilayered. It extends beyond users or systems. Tefko Saracevic

42. Axiom 5 Statement Id est Context may be difficult to formulate and synthesize. But plenty can go wrong when not taken into consideration in interactions. Context is not self-revealing, nor is it self-evident. Tefko Saracevic

43. Tough problems 4. In conclusion Tefko Saracevic

44. People • In information interactions people act & compensate in many ways including errors & failures • Considerable amount of research is devoted to these processes Tefko Saracevic

45. Information retrieval • Considerable amount of research is devoted to IR but almost exclusively from system not people orientation • TREC is a great success in that respect Tefko Saracevic

46. Interaction & information retrieval • Interaction is central to IR particularly including searching of the Web • Design of interfaces for IR interaction still lacking • many users have difficulties • so do many professionals • TREC is a colossal failure in that respect Tefko Saracevic

47. Symbolic connections between HII research & IR research Tefko Saracevic

48. Tough problem • Integrating human-information interaction research with IR research • Meaning that • HII research must be directed toward results directly informing IR • IR research must be radically redirected Tefko Saracevic

49. Tougher problem • Creating a different mindset in all • To see and act on the necessity to view, research, and implement Human-information interaction in all its facets Tefko Saracevic

50. Toughest problem • To integrate context in IR theory and practice • Yet professional searchers do that all the time • They understand context axioms intuitively Tefko Saracevic