Ch13 statistic (108)

1. Ch13 statistic (108) • 13.1 6 • 13.2 6 • 13.3 2 • 13.4 6 • 13.5 3 • 13.6 4 • 13.7 6 • 13.8 5

2. Secondary Storage Management The Memory Hierarchy

3. The Memory Hierarchy Computer systems have several different components in which data may be stored. Data capacities & access speeds range over at least seven orders of magnitude Devices with smallest capacity also offer the fastest access speedand highest cost per byte

4. Description of Levels • Cache • Megabyte or more of Cache storage. • On-board cache : On same chip as the microprocessor. • Level-2 cache : On another chip. • Cache data accessed in few nanoseconds. • Data and instructions are moved from main memory to cache when needed by processor • Volatile

5. Description of Levels 2. Main Memory • 1 GB or more of main memory. • Instruction execution & Data Manipulation - involves information resident in main memory. • Time to move data from main memory to the processor or cache is in the 10-100 nanosecond range. • Volatile 3. Secondary Storage • Typically a magnetic disk. • Single disk units capacity upto 1 TB( in 2008). • One machine can have several disk units. • Time to transfer a single byte between disk & main memory is around 10 milliseconds.

6. Description of Levels 4. Tertiary Storage • Holds data volumes measured in terabytes. • Significantly higher read/write times. • Larger capacities but smaller cost per bytes. • Retrieval takes seconds or minutes, but capacities in the petabyte range are possible.

7. Transfer of Data Between Levels • Data moves between adjacent levels of the hierarchy. • Each level is organized to transfer large amounts of data to or from the level below • Disk is organized into disk blocks • Key technique for speeding up database operations is to arrange data so that when one piece of a disk block is needed, it is likely that other data on the same block will also be needed at about the same time.

8. Volatile & Non Volatile Storage • A volatile device “forgets” what is stored in it when the power goes off. • Example: Main Memory • A nonvolatile device, on the other hand, is expected to keep its contents intact even for long periods when the device is turned off or there is a power failure. • Example: Secondary & Tertiary Storage Note: No change to the database can be considered final until it has migrated to nonvolatile, secondary storage.

9. Virtual Memory • Managed by Operating System. • Some memory in main memory & rest on disk. • Transfer between memory and diskis in units of disk blocks (pages). • Not a level of the memory hierarchy

10. Thank you!

11. Section 13.2 – Secondary storage management CS-257 Database System Principles Avinash Anantharamu 102

12. Index • 13.2 Disks • 13.2.1 Mechanics of Disks • 13.2.2 The Disk Controller • 13.2.3 Disk Access Characteristics

13. Disks: • The use of secondary storage is one of the important characteristics of a DBMS, and secondary storage is almost exclusively based on magnetic disks

14. Structure of a Disk

15. Mechanics of Disks • Disk assembly consists of one or more circular platters than rotate around a central spindle

16. Data in Disk • 0’s and 1’s are represented by different patterns in the magnetic material. • A common diameter for the disk platters is 3.5 inches.

17. Mechanics of Disks • Two principal moving pieces of hard drive 1- Head Assembly 2- Disk Assembly • Disk Assembly has 1 or more circular platters that rotate around a central spindle. • Platters are covered with thin magnetic material

18. Top View of Disk Surface

19. Mechanics of Disks • Tracks are concentric circles on a platter. • Tracks that are at a fixed radius from the center among all the surfaces form one cylinder • Tracks are organized into sectors which are segments of circular platter. • Sectors are indivisible unit as far as reading and writing the disk is concerned. Also errors are concerned. • Blocks are logical data transfer units.

20. Disk Controller • One or more disk drives are controlled by a disk controller • Control the actuator to move head assembly • Selecting the surface from which to read or write • Transfer bits from desired sector to main memory

21. Simple Single Processor Computer

22. Disk Access characteristics • Seek time: The disk controller positions the head assembly at the cylinder containing the track on which the block is located. The time to do so is the seek time. • Rotational latency: The disk controller waits while the first sector of the block moves under the head. This time is called the rotational latency.

23. Disk Access characteristics • Transfer time:All the sectors and the gaps between them pass under the head, while the disk controller reads or writes data in these sectors. This delay is called the transfer time. • Latency of the disk:The sum of the seek time, rotational latency, transfer time is the latency of the time.

24. Reference: • Database Systems -The complete Book-Second Edition

25. Thank you Any Questions?

26. 13.3 Accelerating Access to Secondary Storage San Jose State University Spring 2012

27. 13.3 Accelerating Access to Secondary StorageSection Overview • 13.3.1: The I/O Model of Computation • 13.3.2: Organizing Data by Cylinders • 13.3.3: Using Multiple Disks • 13.3.4: Mirroring Disks • 13.3.5: Disk Scheduling and the Elevator Algorithm • 13.3.6: Prefetching and Large-Scale Buffering

28. 13.3 Introduction • Average block access is ~10ms. • Disks may be busy. • Requests may outpace access delays, leading to infinite scheduling latency. • There are various strategies to increase disk throughput. • The “I/O Model”is the correct model to determine speed of database operations

29. 13.3 Introduction (Contd.) • Actions that improve database access speed: • Place blocks closer, within the same cylinder ( avoid seek time) • Increase the number of disks • Divide data into serveral smaller disks • Mirror disks ( two or more copies of the data on different disks) • Use an improved disk-scheduling algorithm • Use prefetching ( Prefect blocks to main memory)

30. 13.3.1 The I/O Model of Computation • If we have a computer running a DBMS that: • Is trying to serve a number of users • Has 1 processor, 1 disk controller, and 1 disk • Each user is accessing different parts of the DB • It can be assumed that: • Time required for disk access is much larger than access to main memory; and as a result: • The number of block accesses is a good approximation of time required by a DB algorithm

31. 13.3.2 Organizing Data by Cylinders • It is more efficient to store data that might be accessed together in the same or adjacent cylinder(s). • In a relational database, related data should be stored in the same cylinder.

32. 13.3.3 Using Multiple Disks • If the disk controller supports the addition of multiple disks and has efficient scheduling, using multiple disks can improve performance significantly • By striping a relation across multiple disks, each chunk of data can be retrieved in a parallel fashion, improving performance by up to a factor of n, where n is the total number of disks the data is striped over

33. 13.3.4 Mirroring Disks • A drawback of striping data across multiple disks is that you increase your chances of disk failure. • To mitigate this risk, some DBMS use a disk mirroring configuration • Disk mirroring makes each disk a copy of the other disks, so that if any disk fails, the data is not lost • Since all the data is in multiple places, access speedup can be increased by more than n since the disk with the head closest to the requested block can be chosen

34. 13.3.4 Mirroring Disks

35. 13.3.5 Disk Scheduling • One way to improve disk throughput is to improve disk scheduling, prioritizing requests such that they are more efficient • The elevator algorithm is a simple yet effective disk scheduling algorithm • The algorithm makes the heads of a disk oscillate back and forth similar to how an elevator goes up and down • The access requests closest to the heads current position are processed first

36. 13.3.5 Disk Scheduling • When sweeping outward, the direction of head movement changes only after the largest cylinder request has been processed • When sweeping inward, the direction of head movement changes only after the smallest cylinder request has been processed • Example:

37. 13.3.6 Prefetching and Large-Scale Buffering • speeding up some secondary-memory algorithms is • called prefetching or sometimes double buffering. • In some cases we can anticipate what data will be needed • We can take advantage of this by prefetching data from the disk before the DBMS requests it • Since the data is already in memory, the DBMS receives it instantly

38. ? Questions ?

39. Disk Failures Presented by Timothy Chen Spring 2013

40. Index • 13.4 Disk Failures 13.4.1 Intermittent Failures 13.4.2 Organizing Data by Cylinders 13.4.3 Stable Storage 13.4.4 Error- Handling Capabilities of Stable Storage 13.4.5 Recovery from Disk Crashes 13.4.6 Mirroring as a Redundancy Technique 13.4.7 Parity Blocks 13.4.8 An Improving: RAID 5 13.4.9 Coping With Multiple Disk Crashers

41. Intermittent Failures • If we try to read the sector, but the correct content of that sector is not delivered to the disk controller • Controller will check good and bad sector • If the write is correct: Read is performed • Good sector and bad sector is known by the read operation

42. CheckSum • Read operation can determine the good or bad status of a sector may appear mysterious • Each sector has some additional bit, called the checksum

43. How CheckSum perform • Each sector has some additional bits ( not perform) • Set depending on the values of the data bits stored in each sector • If the data bit in the not proper we know there is an error reading • Odd number of 1: bits have odd parity(01101000) • Even number of 1: bit have even parity (111011100) • Find Error is the it is one bit parity

44. Stable Storage • Deal with disk error • Sectors are paired and each pair represents one sector-contents X showing left and right copies as Xl and Xr • The stable-storage writing policy:It check the parity bit of left and right by substituting a spare sector of Xl and Xr until the good value is returned then write the value of X into Xl or Xr

45. Error-Handling Capabilities of Stable Storage • Media Failures: after storing X in sectors Xl and Xr, Since it has XL and XR, one of them fail we can still read other one • Can not read X If both XL and XR have failed. Chance both of them fail are pretty small • Write failure: The write Fail, it happened during power outage ( ??)

46. Recover Disk Crash • The most serious mode of failure for disks is “head crash” or “disk crash” where data permanently destroyed. • The way to recover from crash , we use RAID method

47. Mirroring as a Redundancy Technique • Assume one of the disks the data disk, and the other is redundant disk • RAID level 1: mirroring, as a protection asginst data loss • it is call Raid 1 (??) • Just mirror each disk (??)

48. Raid 1 graph

49. Parity Block • It often call Raid 4 technical, it uses only one redundant disk, no matter how many data disks there are • read block from each of the other disks and modulo-2 sum of each column and get redundant disk disk 1: 11110000 disk 2: 10101010 disk 3: 00111000 get redundant disk 4(even 1= 0, odd 1 =1) disk 4: 01100010

50. Raid 4 graphic