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Psychology. Stephen F. Davis Emporia State University Joseph J. Palladino University of Southern Indiana PowerPoint Presentation by H. Lynn Bradman Metropolitan Community College-Omaha. Thinking, Language, and Intelligence. Chapter 8. Thinking.
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Psychology Stephen F. DavisEmporia State University Joseph J. PalladinoUniversity of Southern Indiana PowerPoint Presentation by H. Lynn Bradman Metropolitan Community College-Omaha Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence Chapter 8 Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • Behavioral psychologists believed thinking could be equated with muscle movements of the vocal apparatus; however, research has shown that this is not correct. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • Cognitive psychology is the study of thinking. • Thinking involves manipulation of information that can take the form of images or concepts. • Visual imagery is the experience of seeing without the object or event actually being viewed. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • Concepts are mental representations that facilitate thinking and reduce the number of elements we must consider. • Concepts may be defined by their properties. • We usually identify specific examples as members of a concept by judging their degree of similarity to a prototype, or best example, of the concept. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • We usually identify specific examples as members of a concept by judging their degree of similarity to a prototype, or best example, of the concept. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • An algorithm is a method of solving problems that involves systematically exploring all possible solutions until the correct one is reached. • Algorithms can be time-consuming and do not work for problems that are not clearly defined. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • Heuristics are educated guesses or rules of thumb that are used to solve problems. • Although the use of heuristics does not guarantee a solution, it is more time-efficient than using algorithms. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • Try the nine dot problem! • Connect the nine dots without lifting your pencil from the paper Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • Rigidity is the tendency to rely on past experiences to solve problems. • One form of rigidity, functional fixedness, is the inability to use familiar objects in new ways. • Likewise, set effect predicts that we will attempt to use solutions that have been successful in the past, even when they are not the most effective. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • Now try this problem Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • The representativeness heuristic predicts that we will base decisions on the similarity of characteristics of the situation to previously established concepts. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • The availability heuristic involves judging the probability of events by the readiness with which they come to mind. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • The way in which information is presented can dramatically alter our decision making; this effect is called framing. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • We also make decisions by comparing the information we have received to some standard. • Heuristics facilitate good decisions but may sometimes result in bad ones. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • Creativity depends on divergent thinking, rather than the convergent thinking assessed in tests of intelligence. • Creative people have a high capacity for hard work, a willingness to take risks, and a high tolerance for ambiguity and disorder. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • The business community is interested in enhancing creativity to develop and market products and services. • The methods used to enhance creativity include engaging in humorous and playful activities. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Thinking • Which would you judge to be creative Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Language • Between birth and the beginning of formal schooling, children learn to speak and understand language. • Phonemes are the individual sounds of a language; morphemes are its smallest meaning-bearing elements. • An understanding of the proper order of words in phrases and sentences demonstrates an understanding of syntax Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Language • There are two major theories of language acquisition: • the notion that language is a learned response acquired like any other behavior • and the view that children are innately predisposed to acquire language through a built-in language acquisition device (LAD) Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Language • American Sign Language (ASL) relies on hand shapes, hand motions, and the positions of the hand in front of the body. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Language • The linguistic relativity hypothesis suggests that our use of words (and syntax) can influence and even guide thought processes. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Language • Although using the male pronoun he to refer to both men and women may be convenient, it can lead people to think that only men are being considered. • Several organizations have developed guidelines for using language in a gender-neutral manner. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • Francis Galton initiated the intelligence testing movement by developing tests based on the assumption that level of intelligence is related to sensory abilities. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed an intelligence test to evaluate French schoolchildren. • They proposed the concept of mental age which compared a child's performance with the average performance of children at a particular age. • The intelligence quotient (IQ) is the ratio of mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • Binet's tests became the widely used Stanford-Binet test. • Another set of tests, the Wechsler Scales, yield verbal and performance appraisals of Intelligence. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • The three characteristics of a good psychological test are reliability, validity, and standardization. • Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained on repeated administrations of the test. • Validity refers to a test's ability to measure what it was designed to measure. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • Standardization refers to uniformity in testing procedures and test scoring. • Norms provide the distribution of scores of a large sample of people who have previously taken a test. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • Intelligence test scores are distributed in the shape of a bell curve. • The majority of the scores are clustered around the middle, with fewer scores found at either extreme. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • According to Charles Spearman, we all possess general intelligence (along with specific abilities. • Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner propose that we have several types of intelligence, most of which are not measured by current intelligence tests. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • Intelligence tests have been used to deny entry into the United States. • The eugenics movement proposed that the intelligence of an entire nation could be increased if only the more intelligent citizens had children. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • The heritability of intelligence is an estimate of the influence of heredity in accounting for differences among people. • The heritability of intelligence tends to increase with age Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • Yet, even clearly inherited conditions, such as PKU, can be modified by altering a person's environment. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • Correlations between the IQ scores of identical twins suggest that intelligence is strongly influenced by heredity. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • The closer the family relationship, the higher the correlation between the intelligence scores of family members. • Studies of adopted children suggest that environmental factors also have an effect on intelligence. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall
Intelligence • Claude Steele has offered evidence that when taking standardized tests, African Americans may experience stereotype vulnerability. • This notion suggests that something as simple as a question about one's race may have more significant meaning to African Americans than to other people. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall