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Northern RenaissanceThe northern European tradition of Gothic Art was greatly affected by the technical and philosophical advancements of the Renaissance in Italy. While less concerned with studies of anatomy and linear perspective, northern artists were masters of technique, and their works are marvels of exquisite detail. The great artists who inspired the Northern Renaissance included Robert Campin, Jan van Eyck (and his brother Hubert, about whom little is known) and Rogier van der Weyden. As Italy moved into the High Renaissance, the north retained a distinct Gothic influence. Yet masters like Dürer, Bosch, Bruegel and Holbein were the equal of the greatest artists of the south. In the mid-16th century, as in the south, the Northern Renaissance eventually gave way to a highly stylized Mannerism.
Sluter executed the large symbolic fountain in the Carthusian monastery. The monastery was destroyed during the French revolution, but the hexagonal base with the figures of the six prophets who had foreseen the death of Christ on the Cross (Moses, David, Jeremiah, Zachariah, Daniel and Isaiah) survived. It shows natural appearances, minute details, the bulk, life-size figures in heavy draperies with voluminous folds.
Claus Sluter (1350-1406), The Moses Well, figures approx. 183 cm high, Chartreuse de Champmol, Dijon, France, 1395-1405 From the 12th century, Moses is occasionally shown with horns (e.g. Michelangelo, Tomb of Pope Julius II, 1513-16, S. Pietro in Vincoli, Rome). These are explained by a mistranslation in the Vulgate (not followed in the Authorized Version of the Bible). In the Book of Exodus (34:29), it is written that Moses shone brightly when he came down from Sinai after he had been given the Tables of Law. St Jerome translated the Hebrew verb for shine, similar to the word 'geren' (horn), by 'cornatus', horned: "Videbant faciem Moysi esse cornatum (They saw that Moses' face was horned)". All of those in western art, this head of Moses most resembles that of biblical tradition. The wrinkled face and heavy eyebrows, the forehead bearing horns in accordance with the tradition of mystery play actors, the bifurcated, flowing beard - all these contribute to an intelligent, awe-inspiring visage full of power. This is indeed the leader of the chosen people, their law-giver and guide. Sluter's genius explores the limits of realism in the treatment of facial expression, but despite this realism, his art has a deeply moving human pathos, and although it might be termed expressionistic, it never degenerates into caricature.
Book of Hours of Maréchal de Boucicaut 1405-08, Parchment, 27,4 x 19 cm, Musée Jacquemart-André, Paris. This illumination showing the Visitation of Mary was made by a miniaturist referred to as the Master of the Book of Hours of Maréchal de Boucicaut. The painter's favourite bird was the swan which is present in the background of this picture, too. He was called also as Maitre aux Cygnes, the Master of Swans.
Les très riches heures du Duc de Berry, 1412-16 Illumination on parchment, Musée Condé, Chantilly. It is the work of the Limbourg brothers (Herman, Jean, Paul). It is by common consent one of the supreme masterpieces of manuscript illumination and the archetype of the International Gothic style. Its most original and beautiful feature is the series of twelve full-page illustrations of the months--the first time a calendar was so lavishly treated--full of exquisite ornamentation and beautifully observed naturalistic detail. The miniatures are remarkable, too, for their mastery in rendering space, strongly suggesting that one or more of the brothers had visited Italy, and they occupy an important place in the development of the northern traditions of landscape and genre painting. The Limbourgs used a wide variety of colours obtained from minerals, plants or chemicals and mixed with either arabic or tragacinth gum to provide a binder for the paint. Amongst the more unusual colours they used were vert de flambe, a green obtained from crushed flowers mixed with massicot, and azur d'outreme, an ultramarine made from crushed Middle Eastern lapis-lazuli, used to paint the brilliant blues. (This was, of course, extremely expensive!) The extremely fine detail which was the characteristic feature of the Limbourgs needed extremely fine brushes and, almost certainly, lenses. Later additions to the Très Riches Heures carried out by the late 15th-century artist Jean Colombe were carried out in a rather less delicate way. The calendars, however, were mostly painted by the Limbourgs; only November includes a substantial amount of Colombe's work. January
February Winter in a peasant village. The inhabitants of a farm are shown warming themselves by the fire, while in the background daily life - cutting wood, taking cattle to the market - goes on as normal.
March This miniature, like the representations of the other eleven months, occupies a whole page of the Book of Hours, while the text referring to it is on the right-hand page, opposite it. The lack of border decoration conforms with the original intention of the painters. In addition to the signs of the zodiac and the figure of Apollo holding the flaming sun the semicircle at the top provides detailed astronomical information for every day of the month of March. It shows, for example, the positions of the moon, the times of sunrise and sunset, etc. These precise scientific details are accurately reflected by the painting, which shows the agricultural labours of the months and evokes the light of March sun and frequent March showers (see in the left upper corner the sheep, the shepherd and the dog running for shelter before the rain). The textures of the gently sloping ground differ according to whether they show unbroken grassy field, freshly ploughed furrows, pasture for sheep or dusty roads. It is not scenes recalling stage settings of broad outlines we can see, but living landscapes, with figures moving freely in them. The proportions of the figures are in harmony with the places they occupy in the vast spaces. If they were removed, it would not change the unity of the landscape. At the same time, the figures are organic parts of their surroundings, they live in them and not in front of them. The bodies of the peasant and his oxen cast a shadow onto the furrows, while blades of grass can be seen before their feet. The Lusignan Castle of the Duc de Berry crowns the landscape parallel with the horizontal line of the oxen, plough and peasant. March
April May
June July
Aug. The month of hawking; the nobles, carrying falcons, are going hunting while peasants are harvesting and swimming. Harvesting grapes (Sept)
Nov. Tilling and sowing (The Louvre fortress as it looked during the reign of Charles V.) the autumn acorn harvest with a peasant throwing sticks to knock down the acorns on which his pigs are feeding Oct.
In the centre of the circular Garden of Eden surrounded by a golden wall stands the ornate Late Gothic edifice of the Fountain of Life. The miniature (from the Book of Hours of the Duc de Berry) illustrates four episodes of the Fall and the Expulsion. On the right-hand side we can see the temptation: Satan with an alluring face and hair, but with the lower part of a serpent, is handing over two golden apples to Eve, who has accepted one and is just taking the other. In the next scene Eve herself is the temptress: she hands over one apple to Adam, who looks like a nearly vanquished hero who resists to the last. One of his knees and one of his hands are already on the ground, he turns his body backwards and his arm is stretched out to receive the apple. Thus he evinces the effort he is making to resist temptation. In the third scene God the Father reproaches the couple. The lengthened rays of His halo seem to emphasize His words, while He is counting on His fingers the consequences of the sin. With his right hand Adam transfers the responsibility to Eve, who hides her sinful hand behind her back. And, finally, the casting out: an angel attired in fiery hues hustles Adam and Eve out of Paradise through a Gothic golden gate. They nostalgically look back upon the place of their happy and peaceful life. In front of them stretches the bleak and unknown world of bare mountains and awe-inspiring seas - indeed, the composition conveys to perfection the complete insecurity awaiting them. The picture has no frame, the border of the whole representation being provided by the wall of Paradise. It is from this frame that Adam and Eve have to enter a world which has no boundaries, in which the very shores of the sea vanish, apparently turning into clouds in the infinity of space. Although the ground of the Garden of Eden is stretched behind the figures like a tapestry, it is not merely a decorative surface, since the gradual darkening of the fresh green lawn conveys spatiality. In fact the hardly discernible nuances of green seem to lend the circle a spherical quality. The painter's intention in this respect is also evinced by the use of perspective in the delineation of the fountain and also of the gate (for example, the roof of the fountain is seen and represented from below, whereas its hexagonal basin appears as if seen from above; indeed, the latter does not turn as steeply into the plane of the picture as does the ground itself). The lucid spatial relationship between the figures and the firm stance of the kneeling Adam lead us to conclude that the artists had definite ideas about representing space.
Catherine of Cleves' Book of Hours, Vision of the Woman in the Sun (Pierpont Morgan, New York. c. 1440).
MASTER of Flémalle ( ca. 1375-1444), Mérode Altarpiece, c. 1427. Oil on wood, 64.1 x 117.8(27.3x2+63.2) cm, MMOA. This intimate triptych is traditionally known as the Mérode Altarpiece, after the family that owned it during the 19th century. It illustrates the moment when the archangel Gabriel announces to the Virgin Mary that she has been chosen by God to be the mother of Christ. The patrons of the painting gaze upon this miraculous event from one of the side panels, while Joseph, busy at his carpenter's bench, occupies the other wing. Campin's fascination with the natural and domestic world dominates his telling of the sacred story. He meticulously renders even the smallest details in an innovative technique combining translucent oil overlay on water-based opaque pigments. The resulting optical effects enhance Campin's interpretation of the Virgin's private chamber as an affluent 15th century interior filled with household appointments and goods similar to those that the patron would have known. The brass laver signifies Mary's purity, as does the Madonna lily in the maiolica pitcher. The hinged wings could be opened and closed according to the daily cadence of private prayers or following the traditions of the Christian calendar.
The Annunciation (central panel from the Mérode Altarpiece), 1425-28, oil on panel, Metropolitan Museum of Art at New York.
MASTER of Flémalle (1375-1444), Portrait of a Lady, 1430. Oil on wood panel, 41 x 28 cm, The National Gallery at London. Portrait of a Man, 1400-10Wood, 40,7 x 28 cm,
EYCK, Jan van (1395-1441) Man in a Turban1433. Oil on wood, 25,5 x 19 cm, National Gallery, London Van Eyck's ability to depict it in such a realistic manner relies greatly on his control of the oil medium, which unlike tempera enables him to represent dark shadows and paler highlights without losing the glowing overall red hue. Remarkable though it is, the description of the sitter - with the stubble on his chin prickly against the soft fur collar, and his bloodshot left eye - is less arresting than the depiction of his head-dress. Van Eyck is noted for the impassivity of his figures, and it is instructive to compare this portrait with that by the Master of Flémalle (Robert Campin) of a man wearing a similar red hat. There, the scarf ends hang down, serving to frame a face in which we read force of character and upon which we can project an inner emotional life. Van Eyck's personage gives much less away. A greater area of the picture is taken up by his red hat than by his face, its three-dimensional bulk is more assertive, it folds and tucks more dramatic. Perhaps the hat was studied at greater length, perhaps on a stand, independently of the sitter and, like a studio still-life, arranged by the painter, knotted and tweaked to present its most picturesque aspect.
Jan Van Eyck, The Annunciationc. 1435, Oil, transferred from wood to canvas, 93 x 37 cm, NGA, Washington. Full of symbolism, elements in this late Gothic church interior symbolize the virginity of Mary, in the white lilies; the transmission of the Holy Spirit, in the white dove; and the relation between the Old and New Testaments, in the use of pavement stones with Old Testament scenes which prefigure the coming of Christ, such as David killing Goliath and Samson destroying the Philistine temple. Jan Van Eyck, Madonna in the Church, c. 1425. Oil on wood, 32 x 14 cm, Staatliche Museen, Berlin. The asymmetric composition, unusual at Van Eyck, is explained by the fact that this panel was the left wing of a diptych. The other wing is lost.
Jan Van Eyck, The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin1435. Wood, 66 x 62 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris. The Flemish artist revolutionized European art by perfecting the technique of oil painting. His meticulous detail, jewel-like transparent color, and subtle tonal gradations have never been surpassed.
Jan Van Eyck, The Ghent Altarpiece (wings closed)1432. Oil on wood, 350 x 461 cm, Cathedral of St Bavo, Ghent
Jan Van Eyck's Mystic Lamb Altarpiece, at St. Bavo, Ghent (1432)Jane Phillips's reconstruction
The altarpiece first appeared in Italy in the thirteenth century as new attention was focused on the altar by changes in the liturgy, church architecture, and the display of relics. Painting on wooden panels had not been common until this time, when gilded and painted panels of elaborate altarpieces began to join -- and would eventually overshadow -- fresco and mosaic as the principal forms of decoration in Italian churches. Artists in Europe turned to the Christian East to learn how to paint on wooden panels, adapting the techniques, style, and subject matter of Byzantine icons. For Byzantine Christians -- and Orthodox Christians today -- the icon was a true copy of its holy model. Theologians used the analogy of a wax impression and the seal used to create it to describe the relation between an icon and its subject. Because icons depict a holy and infinite presence, not the temporal physical world, they avoid direct reference to earthly reality, to specific time or place. Instead, backgrounds are dematerialized with shimmering gold, settings are schematized, and figures often appear timeless and static. Icons are devotional images -- windows through which viewer and holy subject make contact. Church decoration was also meant to instruct the faithful. In the West, artists were called upon to tell stories. Church frescoes and mosaics -- and now panel painting -- illustrated the lives of Christ, the Virgin, and saints. New religious orders, especially the Franciscans, who renounced their possessions to preach in villages and towns as Christ had done, stimulated interest in the human life of holy figures. Artists sought to capture the world of everyday experience with greater verisimilitude, relying less on an "ideal image in the soul" and more on what could be seen by the human eye. Among the first and most important artists to move in this direction was Giotto. Recognized as a father of "modern" painting, he was the first Western artist since antiquity to capture the weight and mass of bodies moving in space, making them three-dimensional with light and shadow. He abandoned the decorative pattern and complicated line of Byzantine art; his forms are heavy and his shapes simple. And as if to match their convincing visual form, Giotto animated his figures with human psychology. Renaissance critics contrasted Giotto's style, which they termed "Latin," with the work of his Sienese contemporary Duccio, whose inspiration was Greek. Two panels from Duccio's greatest work, the monumental Maestà altarpiece, are featured on this tour.
Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his Wife1434. Oil on oak, 82 x 60 cm, National Gallery, London
The old canon and the warrior The Madonna with Canon van der Paele, 1436. Oil on wood, 122 x 157 cm, Groeninge Museum, Bruges
Rogier van der Weyden (1400-1464), Deposition, c. 1435. Oil on oak panel, 220 x 262 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid.
Rogier van der Weyden, St Luke Drawing a Portrait of the Madonna,1435. Oil and tempera on panel, 137,7 x 110,8 cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston The atmospheric effect of chiaroscuro is a quality typical of the art of Jan van Eyck. In fact Rogier is referring directly to a painting by van Eyck In spite of the inspiration from Jan van Eyck, this is an entirely independent depiction of the subject, and was to establish a new tradition. In a departure from earlier paintings of the subject, Rogier's saint is not himself painting the Mother of God but recording the silverpoint drawing. This corresponds to the practice of contemporary portraiture, and also emphasizes the spiritual significance of the picture more than the long, craftsman-like activity involved in painting itself.
Rogier van der Weyden, Seven Sacraments Altarpiece,1445-50. Oil on oak panel, 200 x 97 cm (central panel), 119 x 63 cm (side panel, each), Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp.
Rogier van der Weyden, Portrait of a Lady, c. 1455. Oil on oak panel, 37 x 27 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington His independent portraits are very like each other in concept and in structure. He lays out his portrait panels as clear, geometrically structured compositions within the basic pattern designed by Jan van Eyck, showing the sitter for the portrait three-quarter face, either head and shoulders or half length, in front of a uniform, usually dark background. This famous portrait is believed to be of Marie de Valengin, illegitimate daughter of Philip the Good of Burgundy.
St Mary Magdalene, 1450s, Silverpoint on prepared paper, 176 x 130 mm, British Museum, London Braque Family Triptych (right wing), representing St Mary Magdalene, c. 1450, Oil on oak panel, 41 x 34 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris.
Petrus Christus, Potrait of a Carthusian1446. Oil on wood, 29,2 x 21,6 cm, MMOA.
Petrus Christus, St Eligius in His Workshop (The Legend of Saints Eligius and Godeberta), 1449. Oil on wood, 98 x 85 cm, MMOA.
BOUTS, Dieric the Elder (ca. 1415-1475) Altarpiece of the Holy Sacrament, 1464-67, Oil on wood, 185 x 294 cm, Sint-Pieterskerk, Leuven.
The Last Supper is remarkable for its stylistic purity and sobriety. The faces of the apostles do not vary greatly. Their gestures seem to have been frozen at a particular point in time. It is an important moment, and those present seem to be meditating on its significance. This superbly glacial and hieratic aspect of the style contrasts with other elements that are equally present, and more down-to-earth, prefiguring the realism of a Van der Goes. Two honest servants in the far left hand corner of the room are observing the proceedings through a hatch from the kitchen. Together with another figure - who may represent the painter himself and who stands by ready to wait on Christ and his disciples - they serve to place this momentous scene firmly in the context of everyday life.
Portinari Triptych, 1476-79. Oil on wood, 253 x 586 cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. The triptych consists of The Adoration of the Shepherds (central panel, 253 x 304 cm); Saints Margaret and Mary Magdalen with Maria Portinari (right wing, 253 x 141 cm); Saints Anthony and Thomas with Tommaso Portinari (left wing, 253 x 141 cm). Painted at Brugges on the commission of Tommaso Portinari, who was Medicean agent in that city. It was subsequently sent to Florence and placed upon the high altar of Sant'Egidio. Details such as the angels in their copes and the still-life of flowers in the foreground are executed with an exquisite delicacy unsurpassed in the entire painting of the Early Renaissance. Its influence was felt by many of the Florentine painters and is reflected in particular in the works of Ghirlandaio and Leonardo.
