Biotechnology

1. Biotechnology

2. Biotechnology • Literally translated means “life technology” • Applying knowledge about living things for the practical use of human kind • How long do you think biotechnology has existed?

3. Buzz Words in Biotechnology • Genetic Engineering • Stem Cell Research • Cloning • Bioterror • Forensic Science • GMO (genetically modified organsim) • Pharmacogenomics • Personalized Medicine • Human Genome Project

4. Place to following in order from smallest to largest

5. In Your Journal Can all forms of technology be used to study all of these aspects of biology? Explain!

6. 3 Main Types of Experiments • in vitro: experiments done in glass, testubes, or petri dishes. Not in living multicellular organisms • in vivo: in a living cell or organism • in silico: experiments done through computer simulation or programming • Biotechnology demands synthetic thinking that incorporates knowledge from all 3 types of experiments

7. Biotechnology • The technical aspects of life involve the complex chemical interactions that take place among the several thousand different kinds of molecules found in any living organism • Macromolecules in living things can be classified into 1 of 4 categories • Protein Nucleic Acid • Carbohydrate Lipid

8. Biotechnologies Macromolecules Protein Nucleic Acids Contain the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and viruses. 2 types : DNA RNA • Essential parts of organisms that participate in virtually every process within cells. • Cell structure • Signaling • Transport • Biological catalysts • Immune response

9. Proteins: Essential Parts of Organisms • Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. • Some have structural or mechanical functions • actin and myosin in muscle • proteins in the cytoskeleton maintains cell shape. • Other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle.

10. DNA: the Master Molecule • Of the several thousand macromolecules needed to keep living things alive, DNA is the master molecule in whose structure is encoded all the information needed to create and direct the chemical machinery of life (mainly proteins)

11. DNA: the Master Molecule • DNA accomplishes this by providing a template to make RNA, which in turn acts is the instructions to build proteins, which are essentially the building blocks and machinery that allow for life • Analysis of the flow and regulation of this genetic information from DNA  RNA  Protein is the subject of molecular genetics

12. Molecular Genetics • aka: molecular biology • Has blurred the lines between biology, physics, and chemistry • It arose from a confluence of disciplines from both the physical sciences and the natural sciences • Genetics Biochemistry • Physical chemistry Microbiology • Quantum mechanics Virology

13. Biotechnology & Molecular Biology • Bio = Life • Molecular biology studies the relationship between DNA  RNA  Protein • Technology : • Technology is a term with origins in the Greek technología • téchnē = 'craft' • logía = the study of something

14. Molecular Biology Arises From a Structure-Function Tradition

15. Natural scientists have always tried to find relationships between structure & function • This pursuit began with the examination of obvious physical attributes • Physicians from the earliest civilizations tried to relate their knowledge of the human body to the treatment of illness Structure & Function

16. Advanced part of the cell theory in the 1830’s • Individual cells are the basic units of structure and function in both plants and animals • Organs were now seen to be composed of tissues • Tissues are groups of cells with similar structures that perform similar functions • Moved structure functionalism beyond systems directly observable with the naked eye Determined all animals are made of cells Determined all plants are made of cells Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann

17. Cells in turn were found to be composed of organelles, each of which has its own specific function • Mitochondria produce energy • Lysosomes digest waste and cellular debris • Ribosomes make protein • Chloroplast do photosynthesis to make sugar • By the 1930’s the stage was set for structure functionalism to move to the level of biologically important molecules Cells

18. Reproduction • Organized structure composed of 1 or more cells • The ability to respond to your environment and maintain homeostasis • The ability to transform energy 4 Characteristics of Life

19. Molecular biology arose from the quest to define the nature of heredity • Reproduction is perhaps the most distinctive attribute of life • Replication of multicellular organisms all begin the same way, with replication of a cell • To explain replication of cells and inheritance of traits over successive generations is, in large measure, to define life Molecular Biology

20. We now understand the nature of heredity and so have answered many of the questions of the genomic era • As we move into the post-genomic era the question is not about how things are inherited, but rather can we manipulate them! • This is the subject of this class The Biotechnology Revolution

21. 100 years ago there was no explanation why some siblings have brown eyes and other blue • 75 years ago the physical structures of simple organic molecules were unknown • 50 years ago we did not know the correct # of human chromosomes • 25 years ago we did not know any of the genes behind cancer • We still do not know how many genes are in the human genome! Bear in Mind…

22. Scientific study of heredity • Heredity: the transmission of genetic characters from parents to offspring: • it is dependent upon the segregation and recombination of genes during meiosis and fertilization • it results in the creation of a new individual similar to others of its kind but exhibiting certain variations Heredity

23. Enter Austrian Monk Gregor Mendel • Crossed different varieties of garden pea plants and using mathematical analysis provided a basis for inheritance • Brought the hereditary process down to the individual organism • Provided a mechanism to drive evolution How are Traits passed on from 1 Generation to the Next

24. P generation = parental generation • True breeding parents • F1 generation = 1st filial or 1st generation of offspring • F2 generation = 2nd filial, or 2nd generation of offspring Types of Hybridization

25. Gene: sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait • Allele: 1 of a number of different forms of a gene • Gamete: A reproductive cell having the haploid number of chromosomes, especially a mature sperm or egg capable of fusing with a gamete of the opposite sex to produce the fertilized egg Vocabulary

26. Homozygous: pair of identical alleles for a trait Heterozygous: Having 2 different alleles for a trait Genotype: an organisms genetic makeup Phenotype: an organisms outward appearance

27. Mendel showed that “traits” are inherited in a predictable manner through what we now know are “genes” • Genes governing individual traits do not “blend” but rather are maintained as discrete bits of hereditary information • Useful traits can be accentuated through controlled mating How are Traits passed on from 1 Generation to the Next

28. Genes can have alternate versions called alleles. • Each offspring inherits two alleles, one from each parent • If the two alleles differ, the dominantallele is expressed. The recessive alleleremains hidden unless the dominant allele is absent. from each parent • The two alleles for each trait separate during gamete formation Mendels Hypothesis

29. Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes • Chromosome Theory of Inheritance • States: Genes have specific loci (locations) along chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment, rather than the individual genes • Developed in 1902 by Walter Sutton & Theodor Boveri

30. Chose to use fruit flies as a test organism in genetics. • Allowed the first tracing of traits to specific chromosomes • There are many genes, but only a few chromosomes. • Therefore, each chromosome must carry a number of genes together as a “package”. • Traits that are located on the same chromosome, and so tend to be inherited together, are called Linked Genes Thomas Morgan Hunt

31. All genes found on the same chromosome are said to be linked • If genes on the same chromosome are 100% linked, you would only produce the parental phenotype for that chromosome, and as you can see in the previous picture, that is not the case Linked Genes

32. The production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent • 3 Types of Genetic Recombination • Recombination of unlinked genes due to independent assortment • Recombination of linked genes due to crossing over • Recombination of genes due to human manipulation Genetic Recombination

33. Learning about DNA contributes to our knowledge of… • genetic disorders • viral diseases • cancer • aging • genetic engineering • criminal investigations Why its important DNA: The Genetic Material

34. Relate Griffith’s conclusions to the observations he made during the transformation experiments. • Summarize the steps involved in Avery’s transformation experiments, and state the results. • Evaluate the results of the Hershey and Chase experiment. Objectives

35. Vaccine • Virulent • Transformation • Bacteriophage New Vocabulary

36. What does DNA stand for? • What subunits make up DNA? • What three parts do the subunits consist of? deoxyribonucleic acid nucleotides phosphate group, Pentose (5 carbon) sugar, & a nitrogenous base DNA

37. DNA was first identified as far back as ________ by a Swiss scientist named Friedrich ____________ • He extracted DNA from the _________ of pus cells found on surgical bandages • At first DNA was called __________ because it was a substance found in the nucleus 1868 Miescher nuclei nuclein Friedrich Miescher

38. Miescher was also able to separate the substance into two basic parts… • The phosphate groups, also called phosphoric acid,were slightly acidic, so DNA belongs to a class of substances called nucleic acids • Throughout the next century, scientists made many exciting discoveries about the function and structure of DNA

39. Griffith’s Experiments • In 1928, Frederick Griffith, a bacteriologist, carried out an experiment that led to an accidental discovery about DNA • He was actually trying to prepare a vaccine against the bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae, which causes pneumonia Transformation

40. Griffith was working with two strains of S. pneumoniae… • One enclosed in a capsule of polysaccharides, that protects the bacterium from the body’s defense system • This helps make the bacterium virulent, or able to cause disease • Smooth-edged S strain • The other strain lacks the polysaccharide capsule and is unable to cause disease • Rough – edged= R strain

41. In Griffith’s experiment, he injected mice with… • S bacteria • R bacteria • Heat-killed S bacteria • Heat-killed S bacteria and normal R bacteria

42. Note about “heat-killing”… • During Griffith’s time, it was not understood that DNA can tolerate temperatures around 90°C without being altered, but ___________ are altered at around 60°C • So “heat-killing” damages a cells proteins and _______________, but leaves DNA intact proteins enzymes

43. Griffiths Discovery of Transformation

44. Somehow, the harmless R bacteria had changed and become ______________ • Griffith had discovered what is now called ____________________ • Occurs when a cell picks up new DNA from it’s _____________, changing its combination of genes, called a _________________ virulent transformation environment genotype

45. Receptor protein Heat-killed S bacteria is ____________ down and its DNA escapes to the environment A receptor protein on the R bacteria receives the S bacteria DNA broken

46. Restriction enzyme cut paste Then restriction enzymes _________ and _________ the two pieces of DNA together

47. But during Griffith’s time, scientists really didn’t understand transformation • During the 1940s and 1950s, scientists were still debating over what cell part contained genetic information • Many scientists actually thought that ___________ contained our genetic information, and not DNA. proteins

48. In 1944, a scientist named Oswald __________ conducted a transformation experiment under 4 different conditions… • Condition 1: Added an enzyme that destroyed ________ • Condition 2: Added an enzyme that destroyed ________ • Condition 3: Added an enzyme that destroyed ___ Condition 4: Added an enzyme that destroyed ________ • Result? • Transformation was only stopped by the enzymes that destroyed DNA, so it must contain the genetic material! Avery proteins DNA • lipids Carbs Oswald Avery

49. Despite Avery’s results, scientists remained _____________ • Since proteins are so important to many cell _____________ and _______________, most scientists still thought that proteins contained the genetic material skeptical structures metabolism

50. In 1952, Alfred ___________ and Martha _____________ set out to settle the controversy. • Their experiments made use of a bacteriophage which is a type of virus that attacks and infect bacterial cells • A virus is much smaller than a cell and consists of a nucleic acid. Either ________ or ________ (never both) surrounded by a protective protein coat called a DNA Hershey Chase DNA RNA Hershey and Chase Capsid capsid