Children

1. 12 Children Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood

2. What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood? Concrete Operational Thought • Concrete operational stage; ages 7-11 • Reversible mental actions applied to real, concrete objects • Focus on several characteristics at once • Seriation: ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension • Transitivity: the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions

3. Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought A family tree of 4 generations; a preoperational child has trouble classifying the members

4. What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood? Evaluating Piaget’s Theory • His conclusions have been challenged: • Cognitive abilities can emerge earlier/later • Stages not unitary structures of thought • Some can be trained to reason at higher stage • Culture and education exert stronger influence • Neo-Piagetians: he got some things right

5. What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood? Applications to Education • Teach children: • Take constructivist approach • Facilitate rather than direct learning • Consider child’s knowledge and level of thinking • Use ongoing assessment • Promote student’s intellectual health • Turn classroom into setting of exploration and discovery

6. What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood? Applications to Education • Applying Vygotsky’s ideas • Encourage child to internalize and regulate self-talk • Provide opportunities to learn in real-world settings • Kamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP) • Small group activities, ZPD emphasis, question-and-answer format • Outcomes are impressive

7. What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Memory • Dramatic improvement in middle/late childhood • Knowledge and expertise • Expert: extensive knowledge in specific area • Strategies (aka: control processes) • Deliberate mental actions to learn and retain information

8. What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Memory • Strategies • Mental imagery used by young children • Elaboration used by older children • Fuzzy trace theory: • Two types of memory representations: • Verbatim memory trace: precise details • Gist: central idea of information

9. What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Thinking • Critical thinking • Thinking reflectively and productively • Evaluate evidence, develop deep understanding • Successful grades is not indicator of critical thinker • Creative thinking • Think in novel and unusual ways • Produce unique solutions • Intelligence and creativity not the same

10. What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Thinking • Creative thinking and intelligence • Convergent thinking – intelligence reflected on conventional tests; produce one correct answer • Divergent thinking – creativity; produce many answers for one question • Research: • No Child Left Behind harms creative thinking; teaching to content of standardized tests

11. What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Caring for Children • Strategies to increase creative thinking • Encourage brainstorming • Provide stimulating environments • Don’t overcontrol, build child’s confidence • Encourage internal motivation • Guide child to be persistent, delay gratification • Encourage taking intellectual risks • Introduce children to creative people

12. What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Thinking • Scientific thinking • Reasoning to identify causal relations • Need understanding of how things occur • Analyze before and after the effect • Reasoning of children differs from scientific • Scientists design experiments, hypotheses • Scientists separate evidence and theory • Child has many concepts incompatible with science and reality; not routinely taught

13. What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Metacognition • Cognition about cognition • Most focus on metamemory • Children ages 5 to 6 • Familiar, related items easier to remember • Gist of a story is easier to remember • Focus on knowledge about strategies • Effective planning aids problem solving • Application of effective strategies is key

14. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Intelligence and Its Assessment • Intelligence • Problem-solving skills and ability to learn from everyday experiences that allow adaptation • Individual differences exist • Verbal ability and problem-solving skills • Can only be measured indirectly • Intelligence tests • Binet tests (later Stanford-Binet Tests)

15. MA CA X100 IQ How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Intelligence and Its Assessment • Mental age (MA): measure of an individual’s level of mental development • Intelligence quotient (IQ) • Normal distribution

16. The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores

17. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Intelligence and Its Assessment • The Wechsler Scales • Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence III – (WISC-III) • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – IV Integrated (WISC-IV integrated) • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)

18. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Types of Intelligence • Sternberg’s Triarchic theory • 3 main forms; individual patterns vary • Analytic intelligence • Creative intelligence • Practical intelligence • Some patterns favored conventional schooling • Creative patterns not always ‘top-of-the-class’ • Wisdom concept added in 2009 • Tested through problem solving

19. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Types of Intelligence • Gardner’s eight types of intelligence (a.k.a. frames of mind) • Verbal • Mathematical • Spatial • Bodily-Kinesthetic • Everyone has all to varying degrees • Musical • Interpersonal • Intrapersonal • Naturalist

20. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Evaluating Multiple Intelligences • Controversial views • Stimulated educators to think more about children’s competencies • Motivated new educational program development and assessment • Some critics say views go too far • Controversy exists: multiple vs. general • Culture • Conceptual differences exist; cultural values influence what is learned, rewarded

21. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores • Influence of genetics • Comparison of identical and fraternal twins • Identical twins: reared together and apart • Effects of environmental change • Heritability: variance due to genetics • Controversial; not without flaws • Environment affected by many factors • Parenting, education, ongoing change in culture/society, personal experiences

22. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores • Environmental influences • Flynn Effect: IQ scores increasing rapidly • Emphasis on prevention, not remedial • Early interventions • High-quality child care • More focus on poor children • Continue programs into adolescence • Gaps between U.S. racial/ethnic groups • Gap narrows in college

23. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores • Creating Culture-Fair Tests • Tests free of cultural bias • Two types devised • Items known in all SES/ethnic backgrounds • No verbal questions • Difficulty in creating • Time limits may create bias • Language differences/picture unfamiliarity • Individual differences of experiences

24. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores • Using Intelligence Tests • Effectiveness depends on user’s skills • Avoid stereotyping and expectations • IQ is not sole indicator of competence • Use caution in interpreting overall IQ scores • Extremes of intelligence • Mental retardation (organic, cultural-familial) • Giftedness (IQ of 130 or more)

25. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores • Characteristics of giftedness • Three criteria • Precocity • Marching to their own drummer • A passion to master • Product of both heredity and environment • Currently, controversy over definitions • Negative consequences for being ‘gifted’

26. What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood? Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness • Children gain new skills in school • Alphabetic principle: sounds of language • Begin to categorize vocabulary; mastery increases with age • Learn to use language in complex manner, producing connected discourse • Metalinguistic awareness • Knowledge about language • Pragmatics: culturally appropriate uses

27. What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood? Reading Whole-language approach Instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning; reading materials should be whole and meaningful Phonetics approach Stresses phonetics and basic rules for translating symbols into sounds; early reading instruction should involve simplified materials

28. What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood? Bilingualism and Second Language Learning • Sensitive periods for language learning vary across different language systems • May be easier for late learners like adults • Adults may learn faster than children • Children’s final attainment level is higher • U.S. behind in children using 2nd language • Bilingualism has positive effect on child’s cognitive functioning, reading abilities

29. What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation • Extrinsic: external rewards, punishments • Intrinsic: internal desires, perceptions • Emphasizes self-determination • Motivation can be enhanced • Create engaging environments • Encourage self-responsibility • External and intrinsic can operate together

30. What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Mastery Motivation and Mindset • Mastery motivation: task-oriented • Focus on learning strategies, process of achievement • Remember, adapt what worked before • Helpless orientation: trapped by difficulty • Blame difficulty on lack of ability • Become anxious, failure becomes reality • Performance orientation • Focus on outcomes, goal is ‘winning’

31. What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Mastery Motivation and Mindset • Mindset: cognitive view of one’s self • Fixed mindset • Belief that qualities are ‘carved in stone’ and cannot change • similar to helpless orientation • Growth mindset • Belief that qualities can change; efforts can improve performance • similar to mastery orientation

32. What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Self- Efficacy • Belief that one can master situation and produce favorable outcomes • Common with mastery motivation and intrinsic motivation • Linked to effort and persistency • Critical factor in achievement • Self-efficacy influences selection, choices

33. What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Goal setting, Planning, and Self-regulation • Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are: • Specific • Proximal • Challenging • Long-term and short-term are needed • It is important to: • Monitor progress • Evaluate outcomes

34. What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Social Relationships and Contexts • Achievement affected by: • Relationships with parents, peers, teachers • Child-rearing practices are very important • Home activities/experiences important • Peers can have positive or negative effect • Teachers’ roles can help/harm motivation • Social contexts of ethnicity and culture • Minority disadvantages or deficits? • Distinct cultural differences have impact

35. 12 The End