ARE YOU READY FOR SOME GRAMMAR OVERDOSE?

1. ARE YOU READY FOR SOME GRAMMAR OVERDOSE?

2. CHILDHOOD’S END

3. CLAUSE  SENTENCE CHILDHOOD’S END 

4. NEW! ADVERBIALS …and all about them!

5. ADVERBIALS – general info • An ADVERBIAL is a sentence element which gives extra information about the time, place, manner, etc. of the event/state described by the rest of the clause. • The adverbial differs from the other four sentence elements (S, V, O, C) in several ways: • it has a wider range of meanings (time, place, manner, etc.) • it has a wider range of forms (AdvP, NP, PP, clause) • it has a wider range of positions (initial, medial, final) • it has the possibility of multiple occurrences (This timelast year Angelina and I were hiking for many daysover beautiful Peruvian mountains.)

6. ADVERBIALS – syntactic classes • There are THREE SYNTACTIC CLASSES of adverbials, depending on how integrated they are into the structure of the clause. PERIPHERAL to the structure of the clause, they have a CONNECTIVE FUNCTION PERIPHERAL to the structure of the clause, they convey the SPEAKER’S COMMENT INTEGRATED into the structure of the clause

7. ADVERBIALS – syntactic form

8. ADVERBIALS – syntactic classes • There are 7 syntactic tests for showing that adjuncts are more integrated into the structure of the clause, unlike disjuncts or conjuncts:

9. Yes, adjuncts ARE integrated into the clause structure – EVIDENCE #1 • ADJUNCTS CAN BE FOCUSED BY CLEFT SENTENCES: • However, John is dating Angelina this week. • However, it is this week, that John is dating Angelina. • DISJUNCTS AND CONJUNCTS CANNOT BE FOCUSED BY CLEFT SENTENCES (SOUNDS ODD): • However, John is dating Angelina this week. • It is however, that John is dating Angelina this week.

10. Yes, adjuncts ARE integrated into the clause structure – EVIDENCE #2 • ADJUNCTS CAN BE THE FOCUS OF A QUESTION (CONSTITUENT QUESTION): • However, John is dating Angelina this week. • When is John dating Angelina? (A: This week.) • DISJUNCTS AND CONJUNCTS CANNOT BE THE FOCUS OF A QUESTION: • However, John is dating Angelina this week. • ??? isJohn is dating Angelina this week? (A: However.)

11. Yes, adjuncts ARE integrated into the clause structure – EVIDENCE #3 • ADJUNCTS CAN BE THE FOCUS OF A QUESTION: • However, John is dating Angelina this week. • Is John dating Angelina this or next week? (A: This week.) • DISJUNCTS AND CONJUNCTS CANNOT BE THE FOCUS OF A QUESTION: • However, John is dating Angelina this week. • IsJohn is dating Angelina this week however or whatever? (A: However.)

12. Yes, adjuncts ARE integrated into the clause structure – EVIDENCE #4 • ADJUNCTS ARE CONTAINED IN PREDICATION ELLIPSIS: • However, John graduated in 1999. • However, John graduated in 1999 and so did Angelina? • DISJUNCTS AND CONJUNCTS CANNOT BE CONTAINED IN PREDICATION ELLIPSIS: • However, John graduated in 1999. • However, John graduated in 1999 and so did Angelina. (≠: However, John graduated in 1999 and however Angelina graduated in 1999?

13. Yes, adjuncts ARE integrated into the clause structure – EVIDENCE #6 • MOST ADJUNCTS CANNOT APPEAR IN THE INITIAL POSITION IN NEGATIVE DECLARATIVE CLAUSES: • However, John left quickly. • Quickly John didn’t leave. • DISJUNCTS AND CONJUNCTS CANAPPEAR IN THE INITIAL POSITION IN NEGATIVE DECLARATIVE CLAUSES: • To my regret, John left quickly. • To my regret, John didn’t leave quickly.

14. ADVERBIAL POSITIONS

15. ADVERBIALS: their position and order She was killed WITH A KNIFE / IN HER APARTMENT / AROUND 3 O’CLOCK IN THE MORNING / YESTERDAY. < STILL TERRIBLE, BUT GRAMMATICALLY OK She was killed AROUND 3 O’CLOCK IN THE MORNING / IN HER APARTMENT /YESTERDAY / WITH A KNIFE /.< TERRIBLE, AND GRAMMATICALLY WRONG

16. ADVERBIALS: their position What can we learn from this sentence: At that time, he somehow used to sort of be always seeking, I don’t know how to say it, a religiously valid reason, I guess, to attack him as soon as possible. A language of an uneducated person? Think again! You’re looking at the sentence uttered by this man:

17. ADVERBIALS: their position AL GORE, US presidential candidate and Nobel prize winner (and the narrator of the Oscar-winning documentary An Inconvenient Truth.

18. ADVERBIALS - position • Compared to other syntactic constituents, the adverbial can be placed with relative freedom in several positions in a sentence. • For example, the adjunct by thencan be inserted in seven different positions in the following sentence: The book should have been returned to the library . MEDIAL FINAL INITIAL By then, the book should have been returned to the library. The book by then should have been returned to the library. The book should by then have been returned to the library. The book should have by then been returned to the library. The book should have been by then returned to the library. The book should have been returned by then to the library. The book should have been returned to the library by then.

19. INITIAL POSITION • INITIAL POSITION: before the subject: • By then, the book should have been returned to the library. • Sometimes we go hiking at weekends. • Last year we organized a huge party for her birthday. • Today we are going to talk about adverbials.

20. MEDIAL POSITION • MEDIAL POSITION: in or around the VP. • Depending on the complexity of the VP, there may be several available medial positions: M1: after the subject, before the first auxiliary (no modal) or modal, before the lexical verb (in a simple VP) e.g. This HARDLY is my business. I SIMPLY do not understand you. M2: after BE as a lexical verb (in a simple VP), between two auxiliaries (if there are only two), between the auxiliary (the only one) and the lexical verb e.g. They have JUST been arrested. She is STILL your friend. M3: between the second and the third auxiliary e.g. The book should have BY THEN been returned to the library. M4: between the third auxiliary and the lexical verb e.g. The book should have been BY THEN returned to the library.

21. FINAL POSITION • FINAL POSITION: after the lexical verb and other obligatory elements. F1: immediately after the lexical verb or after an obligatory complement e.g. I paid immediately for the book. I haven’t finished my report yet. F2: after a non-obligatory element or, simply, at the end of the sentence e.g. I paid for the book immediately.

22. SO, NOW WE KNOW ABOUT THEIR POSITIONS…

23. LET’S BUILD UPON THAT FOUNDATION MORE PROPERTIES OF ADVERBIALS

24. ADVERBIALS – OPTIONALITY • Adverbials are often said to be OPTIONAL sentence elements, i.e. “the adverbial is the optional constituent; it can be left out of the clause; all others are obligatory.” (David Crystal) • However, that is not always the case, as you will see in the next slide.

25. ADVERBIALS - OPTIONALITY • Compare the following sentences: • Anne is Scottish. • Anne is a Scotswoman. • Anne is from Scotland. • Anne is in Scotland. WHAT IS ANNE (LIKE)? WHERE DOES ANNE COME FROM? WHERE IS ANNE? THE FIRST TWO EXAMPLES CONTAIN A LINKING/COPULA VERB “BE” FOLLOWED BY A SUBJECT COMPLEMENT. THE VERB “BE” CANNOT BE REPLACED WITH ANY OTHER VERB, I.E. THE SENTENCE CANNOT BE PARAPHRASED WITH ANY OTHER VERB. THE LAST TWO EXAMPLES CONTAIN AN INTRANSITIVE VERB “BE” FOLLOWED BY AN ADVERBIAL. THE VERB “BE” CAN BE REPLACED WITH OTHER VERBS, I.E. THE SENTENCE CAN BE PARAPHRASED WITH E.G. COME, STAY OR LIVE. THESE ADVERBIALS ARE OBLIGATORY.

26. FACEBOOK IS WHERE YOU TALK TO THE WALL. *FACEBOOK IS.

27. ADVERBIALS - OPTIONALITY • Of course, adverbials are also obligatory in sentences that follow the SVOA pattern (COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS): • He put the book on the shelf. • She put the cheese back. • He threw the paper in the bin.

28. ADVERBIALS

29. ADVERBIALS • Generally, a RAG-BAG category in linguistic systems: • usually negatively defined as sentence elements which are not VERBS and DO NOT have a participant function in the clause • Sometimes positively defined as sentence elements that provide answers to the questions how/why, where and when. (Crystal) • Somehow adverbials that answers to the questions how/why, where and when seem PROTOTYPICAL.

30. ADVERBIALS: Their Meaning

31. ADVERBIALS • Etymology: from Latin adverbium: ad (“to”) + verbum (“word”) Therefore they are also sometimes defined in the following way (Sinclair 1990): “An adverbial is a word or a group of words that you add to a clause when you want to say something more about the circumstances of an event or a situation, for example, when it occurs, how it occurs, how much it occurs or where it occurs.” • These definitions present adverbials as sentence elements with a secondary importance. • Some idea of the actual frequency of adverbials and their importance in communication can be had from the following example:

32. David sat /silently/ /in the grass/, watching the insects which lay /at different angles from one another/ /on numerous blades of grass/, /like ships out in the roadstead/. A caterpillar started to wriggle /towards him/, /peering/ /this way and that/ /with interrogatory antennae/. A large cricket jumped /to the handrail of the old bench/, /swaying/ it /slightly/ and cleaning its face /like a cat/. / Only then / did David realize that a large tarantula climbed / onto his arm / / looking for a nice place /to bask/ /in the afternoon sunshine/.

33. ADVERBIALS • Actually, ADVERBIALS are the most important sentence elements from the point of view of COMMUNICATION. • They are the sentence elements which contain THE MOST IMPORTANT PIECES OF INFORMATION AND THE CRUCIAL DETAILS ABOUT THE STATE OR ACTIVITY EXPRESSED BY THE VERB. • Look at the previous passage with adverbials omitted:

34. David sat. A caterpillar started to wriggle. A large cricket jumped. David realized that a large tarantula climbed onto his arm (obligatory adverbial).

35. TIME (HYPOTHETICAL) PURPOSE • In another life, I would make you stay, so I don’t have to say you were the one that got away. • I would make you stay.

36. REASON • I should’ve told you what you meant to me, ‘cause now I pay the price. • I should’ve told you what you meant to me.

37. EVOLUTION: CAUSE MANNER • Populations of organisms gradually change in response to their environment. • Populations of organisms change.

38. CONDITION (HYPOTHETICAL) • You could be doing many wonderful things, if you were not sitting at your computer. • You could be doing many wonderful things.

39. ADVERBIALS: their meaning You will get killed. CONDITION (REAL POSSIBILITY) You will get killed IF YOU DON’T DRIVE CAREFULLY.

40. ADVERBIALS: their meaning LOCATION They camped AT THE BEACH. They camped.

41. ADVERBIALS: their meaning TIME-WHEN WHEN HE WAS A BOY, he used to dream of owning a sailboat. He used to dream of owning a sailboat.

42. ADVERBIALS: their meaning INSTRUMENT The scientist examined the sample WITH A MICROSCOPE. The scientist examined the sample.

43. ADVERBIALS: their meaning MANNER They walked HAND IN HAND. They walked.

44. ADVERBIALS He ran. Naturally, when he saw an Albertosaurus, he ran as fast as he could. A sentence without adverbials. A sentence with adverbials.

45. ADVERBIALS: their other meanings • If possible (A), ring me later. [contingency] • Although he's young (A), he's good. [concession] • While she slept (A), I worked. [contrast] • I would go, except I can't (A). [exception] • Knowing her (A), I chose a red one. [reason] • I fed the stray, to gain its trust (A). [result] • The dog obeyed, as instructed (A). [comparison] • I would fight, rather than quit (A). [preference] • Ankara, I believe (A), is the capital. [comment = disjunct]

46. IN OTHER WORDS… • WE HAVE A LOT OF WORK TO DO. • WELCOME TO THE BEAUTIFUL, INTRICATE, SOMETIMES COMPLEX AND ALWAYS FUZZY WORLD OF SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBIALS.

47. SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBIALS (i.e. their meanings)

48. ADJUNCTS SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION

49. SEMANTIC TYPES OF ADJUNCTS

50. 1. ADJUNCTS – PROCESS • They favor the FINAL position • Some can take the MEDIAL position • Co-occurrence possible: She was accidentallystruck with a racketby her partner.