Human Development

1. Human Development Development Parenting styles Cognition DNA Theories of development Conception Genes Developmental theorists Assimilation Genotype Teratogenic effects Threshold effect Phenotype Imprinting Accommodation Gamete Stranger anxiety Germinal stage Zygote Theory theory Embryonic stage Attachment Theory of mind Fetal stage Interaction effect Apgar scale Critical periods Addiction Dizygotic/Monozygotic twins

2. Preoperational Stage This preoperational child does not yet understand the principle of conservation of substance. Video… Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the preoperationalstage—too young to perform mental operations. For example, in this stage do not understand the concept of conservation, the principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

3. Concrete Operational Stage In the concrete operational stage, given concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities. Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a transformation, 12 – 4 = 8, is also easily doable.

4. Erik Erikson, Psychosocial Development • Erikson maintains that development occurs through a series of basic crises. • Erikson describes the basic crises of infancy and toddlerhood as those of trust v mistrustand autonomy v shame and doubt • In Eriksons’s view, parental guidance and protection are the keys to the child’s gaining a healthy sense of autonomy. • Infants who fail to develop trust or achieve autonomy may become adults who are suspicious and pessimistic or who are burdened by shame.

5. Erikson’s, Psychosocial Development • InfantTrust vs MistrustNeeds maximum comfort with minimal uncertaintyto trust himself/herself, others, and the environment • ToddlerAutonomy vs Shame and DoubtWorks to master physical environment while maintainingself-esteem • PreschoolerInitiative vs GuiltBegins to initiate, not imitate, activities; developsconscience and sexual identity • School-Age ChildIndustry vs InferiorityTries to develop a sense of self-worth by refining skills • AdolescentIdentity vs Role ConfusionTries integrating many roles (child, sibling, student, athlete,worker) into a self-image under role model and peer pressure

6. Young AdultIntimacy vs IsolationLearns to make personal commitment to another asspouse, parent or partner • Middle-Age AdultGenerativityvs StagnationSeeks satisfaction through productivity in career, family, andcivic interests • Older AdultIntegrity vs DespairReviews life accomplishments, deals with lossand preparation for death

7. Social comparisons develop soon after children enter grade school (around age 5 or 6) • Children begin to make comparisons with other children, a process known as social comparisons • Competence and autonomy are important components of social comparisons…children begin to recognize one’s own abilities as relative to other children • During this time children show an increase awareness of social situations

8. Gender Identity • Sex is defined by biology • The child learns to identify themselves as male or female…body shape, pregnancy • Gender is defined by the child’s culture • Gender is a shared cultural definition of what it means to be masculine or feminine • Gender roles are cultural expectations about the appropriate behavior for each gender

9. Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Theory • Freud suggested that children identify with their same-sex parent • Identification provides the foundation for gender identity • Anxiety and a desire for power provides the motivation for identification • Focusing on emotional identification is one way to explain the powerful gender roles that most people accept as part of their self-concept

11. Social Learning Theory • Social learning theorists use the concept of modeling to explain gender identity • Children observe differences in gendered behavior, they model their own behavior after the behavior of people they perceive to be like themselves • Media also provides stereotyped models for learning gender roles • Gender appropriate behaviors are also reinforced by parents, peers, and other members of their culture

12. Bem’s Gender Schema Theory • According to Bem’s gender schema theory, the child is an active participant in processing gender specific information • The child seeks out information about gender because masculinity and femininity are cognitively and culturally significant categories • As the child’s general cognitive abilities mature, their gender schemas also become more sophisticated

13. Attachment • Mary Ainsworth has developed laboratory procedure for measuring the security of attachment • The procedure is called the Strange Situation-infants’ reactions to the comings and going of their mothers and to friendly strangers are monitored • Fully formed fear emerges at about 9 months. One expression of this new emotion is stranger wariness, which emerges between 9 and 14 months; another is separation anxiety, or fear of abandonment, which becomes most obvious at 9 to 14 months. • Approaching and following their caregivers are signs of proximity-seeking behaviors, while holding and cuddling are signs of contact; maintaining these behaviors are signs of attachment

14. A secure attachment(TypeB)is one in which the infant derives comfort and confidence from the caregiver-this is a type of attachment in which the caregiver acts as a base for exploration • Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A)-infants who display insecure attachment may engage in little interaction with their mothers and show no apparent distress when they leave • Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment(TypeC)- infants show an inconsistent mixture of behavior toward their mothers, such as both resisting and seeking contact • Disorganized attachment (TypeD)- found in the most troubled infants

15. Contact is a key to attachment • Familiarity is another key to attachment • Critical periods are the optimal periods when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development • Parenting styles will foster attachment in later developmental stages • Parenting styles • Authoritarian, Authoritative,Permissive,Neglectful

16. Parenting Styles

17. According to epigenetic theory, every human characteristic is strongly influenced by each person’s unique genotype • Temperament refers to “constitutionally based” individual differences in emotions, activity, and self-control • Infants are born with distinct temperaments that are genetic in origin and affect their personality • Personality traits are generally considered to be primarily learned; temperamental traits are considered to be primarily genetic • According to the New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS), infants can be described as possessing one of four temperaments: • 1. easy-(40 percent) • 2. slow to warm up-(15 percent) • 3. difficult-(10 percent) • 4. hard to classify-(35 percent)

19. An important factor in healthy psychosocial development is the goodness of fit between the developing child and the caregiving context • If attachment is not developed between caregiver and infant, severe depression or other serious problems may arise…post partum depression, developmental delays, failure to thrive • Failure to thrive is the diagnosis for an infant who does not grow, develop, or gain weight on schedule

20. Social Development Stranger anxiety is the fear of strangers that develops at around 8 months. This is the age at which infants form schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face.

21. Adolescence begins with puberty…puberty indicates sexual maturity (only) • Puberty refers to the rapid physical growth and sexual maturation that end childhood, eventually producing a person of adult size and sexual potential • Primary sex characteristic- the reproductive organs and external genitalia • Primary sex characteristics refer to organs involved in conception and pregnancy…vagina, uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis • Secondary sex characteristics-the non-reproductive traits such as breasts and hips, facial hair and deepened voice in boys

22. Secondary Sexual Characteristics Also secondary sexual characteristics—the nonreproductive traits such as breasts and hips in girls and facial hair and deepening of voice in boys develop.

23. For girls, the sequence of biological changes of puberty is…. • The growth of nipples • First pubic hairs • Height spurt • First menstrual cycle, menarche • Final pubic-hair growth • Full breast development • The first set of publicly visible changes during puberty is the growth spurt…a sudden, uneven increase in the size of almost every body part

24. Sex hormones • In adolescence, the pituitary glands activate the gonads or the sex glands…the gonadotrophin-releasing hormones causes the gonads to increase production of estrogen and androgens…estrogen for girls and testosterone for boys • The sex hormones affect the body’s shape and functioning, including production of other hormones that regulate stress and immunity…estradiol and testosterone levels may also explain sex differences in psychopathology • The behaviors triggered by hormones are responses to moodiness and lust • Certain behaviors are influenced by biology…aggressiveness, males produce more testosterone • Culture influences the gender roles, thus influencing how those behaviors manifest • Culture/biology influences sexual behaviors

25. Age of puberty varies among ethnic groups, most likely because of genes…African American females reach puberty earlier than others • For both sexes, malnutrition delays puberty…the secular trend indicates that it causes puberty to start earlier and make people shorter, and has stopped in developed nations • Stress affects puberty hormones by increasing production • Cohorts are also influencing for early maturing boys…delinquency training • Early maturing girls tend to experience depression, have more boyfriends, lower self-esteem, and poorer body image • Early maturing males engage in delinquent behavior, start drinking earlier, engage in sexual behaviors earlier, and are more aggressive than later maturing boys • Later maturing boys also engage in delinquent behavior which may be due to depression and self-esteem issues, afraid of sex, and more anxious • Development continues into the emerging adulthood period…cognitive, psychosocial

26. Emerging Adulthood Emerging adulthood spans from the late-teens to the mid-twenties. During this time, young adults may live with their parents and attend college or work. On average, emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties.

27. Developing Morality Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” Hurricane Katrina victims were faced with a moral dilemma: Should they help themselves to household necessities?

28. 3 Basic Levels of Moral Thinking Preconventional Morality: Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward. Conventional Morality: By early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld for their own sake. Postconventional Morality: Affirms people’s agreed-upon rights or follows personally perceived ethical principles.

29. Kohlberg’s, Moral development • Level I (preconventional) • Stage I-Obedience and Punishment orientation (similar to Piaget 1st stage) –It’s wrong to steal because you’ll get punished, rewards from the outside world • Stage 2-Individualism and Exchange-different individuals have different viewpoints –What’s in it for me? (self-interests), punishments from the external world • Level II (conventional) • Stage 3-Interpersonal accord and conformity- social norms-people should live up to others’ expectations of the family and community and behave in good ways-he loves his wife; no husband should let his wife die (good boy/g) adolescents value loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgments • Stage 4-Authority and Maintaining Social Order-obeying the law, respecting authority-what would happen if we all started stealing? Cannot condone theft social order, justice and duty are important in making decisions

30. Level III (Post conventional) • Stage 5-Social Contract and Individual Rights-it is a human’s basic right to live and this supersedes the law (moralistic) the importance of individual rights are the basis for moral decisions • Stage 6-Universal Principles-there should not be a law that protects some and hurts others( uphold social contracts and laws that promote a good society) universal ethical principles, complete selflessness

32. Marica’s Stages of Identity Development • Identity-diffusion the individual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question and is not making progress toward them • Foreclosure-the individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has not established an identity based on the choices or values of others

33. Moratorium-the individual is exploring various choices but has not yet made a clear commitment to any of them • Identity achievement-the individual has attained a coherent committed identity based on personal decisions • During this time of identity development, adolescents rely less on parents’ views and defer instead to peers

34. Psychologists once viewed adulthood as one long plateau, but now feel that development continues through our adult lives. Though stages are difficult to define in adulthood, based on our similarities in development we use three terms, early, middle, and late adulthood. Rick Doyle/ Corbis

35. Cognitive changes in late adulthood • As neurogenesis slows down, the memory functions decrease • Crystalized intelligence, accumulated knowledge may remain stable, but fluid intelligence, intelligence for reasoning, thinking quickly and abstractly declines • Older adults may find it necessary to resort to memory cues…

36. Adulthood’s Ages and Stages Life events trigger life stage transitions at varying ages. The social clock – the culturally preferred timing of social events – varies from era to era and culture to culture. For instance, the once rigid schedule for Western women has now loosened.

37. Aging and Memory • Recognition memory does not decline with age, and material that is meaningful is recalled better than meaningless material. • Some older adults suffer from biologically based cognitive impairments in which the brain is so adversely affected by aging that it becomes very difficult for the person to continue to function effectively.

38. Successful Aging

39. Death and Dying The “normal” range of reactions or grief stages after the death of a loved one varies widely. Grief is more severe if death occurs unexpectedly. People who view their lives with a sense of integrity (in Erikson’s terms) see life as meaningful and worthwhile. Life satisfaction before, during the year of, and after a spouse’s death

40. Friends and Relatives • DEATH OF A SPOUSE • Another common event that long-married older adults must face is the death of their spouse. • Adjustment to being widowed is especially difficult during the first two years after the death. • Because women tend to marry older men, the average married woman experiences 4 to 10 years of widowhood and the average man, none.