Unit Two Sacred Texts and Epics

1. Unit TwoSacred Texts and Epics Indian Literature

2. India Before 1947 • Modern nation of India since 1947 • Before 1947, the term India was used to describe the entire subcontinent of South Asia • Region surrounded by ocean and Himalayan Mountains • Remained mostly isolated with few invaders • Most invading cultures were absorbed into Indian culture

3. Indus Valley, Aryan, and Dravidians • Indus Valley Civilization- located in modern day Pakistan and western India • named for a river that runs through region • urban and highly sophisticated • Mysteriously ended around 1500 B.C. • Aryans- meaning “noble” • migrated to India from north and west around 1500 B.C. • Brought with them hymns called the Rig Veda, which expressed their religious ideas

4. Indus Valley, Aryan, and Dravidians • Dravidians- inhabited southern India in ancient times • dark-skinned, small framed people • developed thriving culture in first millennium B.C. • not much known about civilization

5. Political History • Map of India- continuously changing boundaries • greatest boundary carved out by Candragupta, ruled by his son Bindusa-ran, and expanded by his grandson Asoka • 16th Century- Mongols (Islamic rulers, descendants of Genghis Khan) established an empire in north India • colonized by Britain from early 1800s-1947 • for most of history India has been a collection of kingdoms and ever changing boundaries

6. Religion • Hinduism- predominant faith in India • Buddhism- virtually extinct in India but has spread throughout Asia; Jainism, and Sikhism • India has added its own flavor to Christianity and Islam

7. Hinduism • mixture of three early cultures: Indus Valley, Aryan, and Dravidian • the word Hindu comes from sindhufrom ancient Indian language Sanskrit meaning “river” or “Indus River” and refers to both religion and social system • recognizes many gods • faith centered on final reality known as brahman- foundation of all things/existing in every being/ essential to identity or atman • society rigidly divided into groups or castes, each of which have own specific duty • No equivalent Indian word for the word “religion” because of no division between religious and secular spheres. Religious concerns are found in all aspects of life and thought.

8. Hinduism Castes • learned people/priests (Brahmans) • warriors • farmers and merchants • serfs • menials (due to their “low” occupations, considered untouchable by members of other castes)

9. Other Religions • Jainism (7th-5th century B.C.) and Buddhism (6th-4th century B.C.) arose in protest against Hindu beliefs and complex rituals of sacrifice • Jains- Sanskrit for “saint” • Jina- renounces earthly pleasures and devoted themselves to protecting all life forms • Buddhism- founded by Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian prince “When he left the palace grounds and learned about suffering and death for the first time, he was so affected by this experience that he renounce luxury and became a wandering religious man. After years of fasting and intense study, he achieved nirvana. This Sanskrit word refers to a state of being in which desire for earthly things has been quenched and the soul therefor need not be reborn.” • Guatama was given the name Buddah, Sanskrit for “enlightened one,” to honor his achievement

10. Other Religions • The Sikh religion- developed in northern India about 2,000 years after Buddhism and Jainism • Rejected caste system and rituals of Hinduism • belief in a single god (monotheism) • Muslim religion came to western India in the 8th century • Later, Muslim armies invaded the north and established the Mongol empire • Ruled by Mongol emperors, the Islamic and Indian traditions mingled as evidenced by art and architecture

11. TajMahal Built by a Muslim emperor after the death of his wife

12. Mathematics • numeral system originated in India • called Arabic numerals because Arab traders brought them from India to Europe • also responsible for invention of the zero (0) and decimal notation • concept of zero may have derived by Indian religious ideologies of time and space as “limitless”

13. Technology and Medicine • Indian excelled at metal working • Iron Pillar of Delhi- solid metal column which measures more than 23 feet and weighs more than 6 tons. Erected c. A.D. 400 by ruler Kumara Gupta in honor of his father • ancient Indian physicians set broken bones, knew the importance of keeping wounds clean, and developed plastic surgery long before it was practiced in Europe

14. Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture • Indian sculptors and painters patronized by kings and wealthy merchants • artists travelled to spread their art, inventions, and craft • art mostly depicted religious themes • valuable historical resource- reflects daily dress, daily life, and pastimes • Frescoes- wall paintings in caves near the village at Ajanta in western India; artificial caves created by Buddhist monks from 1st century to the 7th century A.D.; vibrant and colorful paintings on their walls depict religious themes

15. Frescoes

16. Literature: The Sacredness of Language • lack of separation between religion and literature • Language itself (the sound of words) considered to be sacred exp. omduring Hindu prayer- saying “yes” to the universe • Believed Sanskrit to be the perfect language • Believed in ultimate effect of language on emotions • Sanskrit grammars, written in Panini in the 6th century, still admired by modern linguists

17. Literature: Ancient Hymns and Epics • Rig Veda- hymns; earliest surviving record of Indian religious thought; homage to god and nature; sets tone of piety and devotion • Mahabharata “Great Epic of Bharata Dynasty”- longest epic poem; associated with long sacrificial rituals; divided into many small episodes • Ramayana “Romance of Rama”- epic hero Rama is one of the forms of the Hindu god Vishnu. Rama, assisted by an army of monkeys led by the monkey general Hanuman, battles the evil demon Ravana.

18. Literature: Epics and Story Telling • the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are still very popular in modern India • people dramatize the events in these epics in colorful pageants, plays, dances, and puppet shows

19. Literature: The Importance of Memory • ancient Indian culture placed great importance on memory • traditional way of learning in India was to memorize completely and perfectly and then hear the teacher explain it • students of the Rig Veda memorized 1,028 hymns in several different versions, in order to learn the difference between the correct way and the incorrect way • this dedication preserved the original texts from 1500 B.C. to the present. • texts were also written, but Indians believed that trusting a written medium was too great a risk

20. Literature: The Evolution of Sanskrit Literature • no literary genres like novel or short story • consists mostly of poetry and drama • Some myths and fables with abstract principles- use vivid language and characters are disarmingly naïve; help people fulfill their dharma (uniques obligations of life) • Kalidasa- considered greatest Indian poet (the Sanskrit Shakespeare) Indian Literature continues to influence modern day culture. It has had a profound influence on Transcendental authors such as Thoreau and Emerson