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Biochemistry

Biochemistry, Photosynthesis, Energy Production, Carbohydrates, Amino Acids, Enzymes, Lipids, Nucleic Acids

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Biochemistry

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  1. Biochemistry

  2. Photosynthesis • Capture and use of solar energy to make food. • Organelles convert light energy into chemical energy. 6CO2 + 6H2O + NRG C6H12O6 + 6O2 (glucose)

  3. How do animals get energy • By eating plants, animals are able to release the stored energy in a plant. C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + NRG (glucose)

  4. Carbohydrates • Monomers and polymers of aldehydes and ketones • Have numerous hydroxyl (OH) groups attached • Many carbohydrates have the general formula Cn(H2O)n

  5. Cont. • Monosaccharides • Simplest carbohydrate molecules (simple sugars) Glucose Fructose

  6. Cont. • Disaccharides • Cyclic forms of simple sugars linked by the loss of water. • Example: Sucrose

  7. Cont. • Polysaccharides • Many monosaccharide molecules linked • Starches: water soluble digested by most animals • Cellulose: insoluble in water, digested by only a few microorganisms

  8. Cellulose Starch

  9. Amino Acids and their polymers • Any compound that contains amino (-NH2) and carboxylic acid (-COOH)

  10. Cont. • 20 amino acids • 9 “essential” amino acids must be included in diet. • 11 “nonessential” amino acids can be synthesized by the body.

  11. Cont. • Peptides – any amino acid united w/ the carboxyilic acid group of another • There always remains a free amino group and a free carboxylic acid group.

  12. Cont. • Any peptide w/ more than 10 a.a. is called a polypeptide • Any peptide w/ more than 100 a.a. is called a protein • A protein 100 a.a. long containing 20 different a.a. can be arranged 20100 times! • Chains coil in 3 dimensions

  13. Cont. • Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts • Enzymes act on substrates • Substrates bond w/ side chains of a.a. on the enzyme (active site) • Enzymes have specific shapes, only allowing certain substrates to fit – Enzyme-Substrate complex (lock and key)

  14. Lipids • Triglycerides – triesters of glycerol w/ fatty acids + + H H

  15. Cont. • Important long-term storage molecules • Fats vs. Oils • Fats are solid at room temp. • Oils are liquid at room temp. • Both are esters

  16. Cont. • Fats and oils are hydrolysis easily in the presence of acids and bases. • Hydrolysis w/ an alkali-metal hydroxide (NaOH, etc) is called saponification (process used to make soap.) • Glycerol is a by-product.

  17. Cont. • Phospholipids – lipids that contain phosphate groups • Molecules are two sided, one hydrophilic, the other hydrophobic • These molecules together form the lipid bilayer of the cell wall

  18. Hydrophilic Region Hydrophobic Region Hydrophilic Region

  19. Cont. • Waxes – Esters of long-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols. • Low-melting stable solids • Protects from water loss and attacks from microorganisms

  20. Nucleic Acids • Polymers found primarily in cell nuclei. • Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – Stores information needed to make proteins and governs the reproduction and growth of cells • Ribonucleic acid (RNA) – Key role in the transmission of the information stored in DNA • Made up of monomers called nucleotides • Phosphate + 5-Carbon Sugar + Nitrogen base

  21. Cont. • The sugar unit in DNA is deoxyribose • RNA contains ribose (one more oxygen) • The nitrogen bases can be any one of four compounds • Adenine, guanine, thymine (uracil in RNA), and cytosine • DNA molecules consist of 2 polynucleotide chains wrapped into a spiral shape (helix)

  22. Cont. • Double-ringed bases must matched w/ a single-ringed base on the opposing strand. • Hydrogen bonding is maximized in this configuration, making it the most stable arrangement.

  23. Cont. • DNA stores the instructions for building proteins (genes) • Instructions are stored in “triplets” (three-letter base sequences) • Each triplet is a code word for one of the 20 amino acids • Example: ACC = Tryptophan

  24. Cont. • An amino acid can specified by more than one triplet code word, but a code word can never specify more than one amino acid • Example : AAA and AAG both code for phenylalanine, but AAA could never code any other amino acid

  25. Cont. • Some code words terminate translations (ATT, ATC, and ACT) • Amino acids are added to the protein until the “end” code word is reached • Gene mutations occur by substitutions, additions, or deletions of nucleotides • May result in faulty protein or no protein. • The majority of gene mutations end with the protein being destroyed

  26. Cont. • Only 5% of human DNA is used to code for proteins • 95% separates and interrupts gene coding sequences. • DNA fragments are similar (have many of the same characteristics) but are not the same in family members

  27. Cont. • Recombinant DNA – way of manipulating genes. • Genes are cut and spliced into new chains • Insulin • Bioluminescence • Limb regeneration • Cloning

  28. Foreign gene Foreign gene cut by enzyme DNA strand sealed w/ enzyme to form recombinant DNA

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