Qualitative Data Analysis: An introduction

1. Qualitative Data Analysis: An introduction Carol Grbich Chapter 22. Incorporating data from multiple sources: mixed methods

2. Mixed Methods Key points • The advantages of combining quantitative and qualitative data are that you can maximize the impact of both • For mixed methods to be successful, issues of sampling, design, data analysis and data presentation need careful attention • Two ways of mixing methods regarding design are: concurrent and sequential, but other new mixes are emerging • Does qualitative data miss out in such a mix? and what is the next move?

3. A brief history of Qualitative and Quantitative approaches The three stages of debate relating to quantitative and qualitative approaches: 1. ‘never the twain shall meet’. 2. rapprochement 3. co-operation and mixing

4. What are the major differences between qualitative and quantitative? Qualitative is an inductive approach • Questions tend to be exploratory and open ended and data is often in narrative form. • Reality is seen as a shifting feast, subjectivity is usually viewed as important • P power is shared with the participants who are the experts on the matter under investigation. • Analysis predominantly deals with meanings, descriptions, values and characteristics of people and things. • The outcome sought is the development of explanatory concepts and models • Widespread generalisation (apart from logical generalisation – that is from similar instance to similar instance) is avoided.

5. What are the major differences between qualitative and quantitative Quantitativeis deductive • Reality is seen as static and measurable • Objectivity (distance, neutrality) and linearity (cause – effect) may be sought • Outcomes are pre specified , hypotheses l dictate questions and approach. • Researcher control of the total process is paramount, precision and predictability are important • Statistical approaches identify numbers and clarify relationships between variables. • Theory testing is the key and generalisation and predictability the desired outcomes. • Survey and experimental research are the main design options. • Conclusions drawn follow logically from certain premises - usually rule based - which are themselves often viewed as proven, valid or ‘true’.

6. Advantages of combining quantitative and qualitative results • clarifying and answering more questions from different perspectives • enhancing the validity of your findings • increasing the capacity to cross check one data set against another • Providing the detail of individual experiences behind the statistics. • Helping in the development of particular measures • Tracking stages over time.

7. Philosophical integration of qualitative and quantitative approaches Two current options: • Pragmatism seeks ways through the polarised quantitative – qualitative debate to find practical solutions to the problem of differing ideologies and methodologies recognising culture, context, individual experience, the constructed nature of reality, uncertainty, eclecticism, pluralism and the need for creative innovation of method. • The Transformative paradigm : multiple realities are shaped by knowledge is historically and socially situated; issues of power between researcher and researched need to be explicitly addressed; the incorporation of qualitative and quantitative methods are appropriate. the transformative ethical orientation comprises a strong human rights agenda within notions of beneficence and social justice

8. Conducting mixed methods research: prior questions • Is your research question one for which mixed methods would be the best approach? • If so, which design would be the best? • A mutual research design? involving acceptance that the two approaches come from completely different paradigms , celebrating their differences and keeping them separate within the design process – the ‘separate but together’ position?. • Mixed methods? • at which points will mixing occur? Design? Analysis? Interpretation? • What sampling approaches will you utilise from the probability and non-probabily suite? • How are you going to manage data analysis?    • quantitizing - converting qualitative data into quantitative data or qualitizing - converting quantitative data into qualitative data • To what degree will you qualitatively analyse quantitative data and vice versa? • How are you going to display your results? - Separately? Integrated? consolidated?

9. Mixed method design • Various forms of labeling and terminology have been used for mixed method design: synergy, integration, triangulation, concurrent, parallel, merging, concurrent, sequential, exploratory and explanatory. Concurrent or sequential are the 2 main options 1. Concurrentor parallel methods • Here you would consider using multiple reference points where separate data sets are collected at the same time with the ultimate aim of merging the two data sets either, • in a visual display such as a matrix • by transforming the data (see quantitizing and qualititzing data in crossover/mixed analyses below) or • in the final discussion. Design might involve using dual sites with the same sampling approach but with different data (quantitative and qualitative) then using the synthesised results to build up a complex picture.

10. Design: 2. Sequential : explanatory/exploratory • You could undertake a qualitative study to explore a particular issue or phenomenon and using an iterative approach you could create hypotheses from these results which you could test using a survey or experimental design. • Or, you could develop a short questionnaire survey to elicit key issues which can then be explained in depth using qualitative approaches of interviewing and observation. Synthesis of the two sets of results is needed to clarify the dual outcomes and to utilise the increased validity these two approaches provide.

11. A typical sequencing design • Stage 1: Representative survey of the population • Stage 2: Exploratory qualitative interviews or focus groups to tease out the findings of the survey • Stage 3: Hypotheses generated from stages 1 and 2 are tested in various interventions which are then evaluated • Stage 4: Participatory action research where the participants take control of the development, implementation and evaluation of the most successful of these interventions.

12. Issues to consider in attempting to combine data sets • You need to be familiar with both quantitative and qualitative approaches • Mixing of paradigms, data collection, analysis and interpretation, takes time and skills to do well • Combined designs are more expensive than single designs • Are there benefits to converting qualitative to quantitative data?

13. Crossover/mixed analysis Suggestions: • reduce dimensionality of either data set (quantifying to basics) • integrate data display (visual presentation of both sets as one) • transform data (Qual to quantb(numerical codes) and quant to qual (themes) for analysis) • correlate data (correlate results from quantitizing and qualitizing) • consolidate data (merging multiple data sets to create new codes, variables etc) • compare data (compare findings) • integrate data (into one or two sets of data) • use warrented assertion analysis (seeking meta-inferences from both sets) • import data (using follow-up findings from qualitative to inform quantitative analysis and vice versa) (adapted from Onwuegbuzie et al, 2010: 58-9).

14. Presentation of dual results Separate data sets • Requires a very large results section and requires regular summaries of data findings which will need to culminate in a final drawing together of the findings so that the reader can make sense of the diversity presented. Combined data sets • Amalgamate the findings in such a way that a neat display of graphical information occurs, followed by a few carefully chosen qualitative quotes to display the homogeneity (or diversity) of the data gathered. Matrixes can bring together variables, themes and cases as can lists, network diagrams and graphical displays. Multiple data sets • Currently the majority of data collected is still within the survey/interview/observation/document analysis framework with the documents traditionally being written communications displayed in a variety of creative ways.