Psychology

1. Cognition: Thinking and Intelligence Chapter 10 - Pearson R. M. Tolles Psychology

2. Module 25: Explain the role that symbols, concepts, and prototypes play as units of thought What is Thinking? Defined - the mental activity that is involved in the understanding, process, and communicating of information Symbols – an object of an act that stands for something else Concepts – grouping or associating things together for understanding and meaning Organizing things into hierarchies and levels to better understand Prototypes – recalling an item and having an image

3. Describe several methods people use to solve problems, and identify obstacles to problem solving Problem Solving Algorithms and Heuristics Algorithm – specific procedure that, when used properly and in the right circumstances, will lead to the solution of a problem Heuristics – rules of thumb that often lead to a solution - Not always effective - Faster than algorithms, not always right

4. Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Using and Misusing Heuristics The Representative Heuristic The representativeness heuristic is a form of stereotyping. We judge people according to the likelihood that they fir tour representation of groups to which we feel they should belong.

5. Problem-Solving Methods Trial and Error Doing something over and over until a solution appears Difference Reduction - identify goals, how you’re related to it, and how to get to that goal (Heuristics method)‏ Means-End Analysis – doing certain things to get certain results (Heuristics Method)‏ Working Backward – working from the result back through to the method Analogies – similarities between things that can be applied to solve a problem

6. Insight and Incubation Insight – sudden understanding Little conscious awareness of how we achieve the understanding Incubation Effect – when one comes to a solution to a problem without even knowing we were consciously working on the problem

7. Solving ProblemsCreativity Creativity Strernberg’s five components Expertise Imaginative thinking skills A venturesome personality Intrinsic motivation A creative environment

8. Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental Set – to try and solve a new problem using a technique that was successful in the past. - Can be helpful, but can also keep people from finding solutions Functional Fixedness – thinking of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually there for. - The object pictured can alter or interfere with finding the solution

9. Problem Solving and Creativity Convergent thinking - Though is limited to available facts Divergent thinking - one associated more freely to the various elements of a problem ABCDEs of Problem Solving A – Assess the problems B – Brainstorm approaches to the problem C – Choose the approach that seems most likely to work D – Do it, try the most likely approach E – Evaluate the result

10. Differentiate between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning Reasoning - Defined as the use of information to reach a conclusion Deductive Resoning - Defined as the conclusion is true if the premissess are true - Premiss, an idea or statement that provides the basic information that allows us to draw conclusions. Inductive Reasoning - Defined as reasoning from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion - Confirmation Bias, trying to find information to prove a hypothesis, rather than disprove it.

11. Section 4 – Analyze the strategies used in decision making Decision Making and Judgment • Weighing the Positives and Negatives • Shortcuts in Decission Making and Judgement

12. Framing Effect and Overconfidence Framing Effect – refers to the way in which wording affects decision making Overconfidence – being over sure of ones knowledge and answer - People are often unaware of how flimsy their evidence is - Tend to pay attention to examples that confirm their own opinions - People tend to bring about things they believe in - Even when people are told that they tend to be overconfident in their decisions, they usually to not make use of this information

13. What is Intelligence?MODULE 26: Define intelligence, and explain the various theories of intelligence. Intelligence vs Achievement • Intelligence according to many Psychologists, intelligence is not achievement (Nature vs Nurture)‏ • Achievement – refers to the knowledge and skills gained from experience • Intelligence can provide the basis for Achievement • How? – gives people the ability to learn

14. Definition Intelligence • Defined - the ability to learn from experience, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment

15. Origins of Intelligence Testing • Intelligence Test • a method of assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them to those of others, using numerical scores

16. Origins of Intelligence Testing • Stanford-Binet • the widely used American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test • revised by Terman at Stanford University

17. Origins of Intelligence Testing • Intelligence Quotient (IQ) • defined originally the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 • IQ = ma/ca x 100) • on contemporary tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100

18. What is Intelligence? • Factor Analysis • statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test • used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score • General Intelligence(g) • factor that Spearman and others believed underlies specific mental abilities • measured by every task on an intelligence test

19. Are There Multiple Intelligences? • Savant Syndrome • condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill • computation • drawing

20. Are There Multiple Intelligences? • Social Intelligence • the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully • Emotional Intelligence • ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions

21. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence Spearman’s Theory • G Factor – ability to reason and solve • S Factor – doing things better than others

22. Louis Thurstone of Primary Intelligence Seven Primary Factors of Intelligence Visual and Spatial Perceptual Speed Numerical ability Verbal Memory and Recall Word Fluency Deductive (rules) and Inductive Reasoning (examples)‏

23. Intelligence and Creativity • Creativity • the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas • expertise • imaginative thinking skills • venturesome personality • intrinsic motivation • creative environment

24. Stanford-Benet Scale • Questions are meant to test the mental age • Intelligent Quotient • IQ – mental age/chronological age Weshler Scale (WAIS-R)‏ • Verbal and nonverbal • Widely used for education

25. Intelligence Tests - Problems Reliability and Validity • Reliability – refers to the consistency • Test Reliability – how often the test is consistent with the same score • Validity – if the test measures what it is supposed to do Problems • Not perfect • Cultural bias

26. Assessing Intelligence • Aptitude Test • a test designed to predict a person’s future performance • aptitude is the capacity to learn • Achievement Test • a test designed to assess what a person has learned

27. Assessing Intelligence • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) • most widely used intelligence test • subtests • verbal • performance (nonverbal)

28. VERBAL PERFORMANCE Picture Completion Picture Arrangement Block Design Object Assembly Digit-Symbol Substitution General Information Similarities Arithmetic Reasoning Vocabulary Comprehension Digit Span From Thorndike and Hagen, 1977 Assessing Intelligence: Sample Items from the WAIS

29. Assessing Intelligence • Standardization • defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested “standardization group” • Normal Curve • the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes • most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

30. Assessing Intelligence • Reliability • the extent to which a test yields consistent results • assessed by consistency of scores on: • two halves of the test • alternate forms of the test • retesting • Validity • the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

31. The Dynamics of Intelligence • Mental Retardation • a condition of limited mental ability • indicated by an intelligence score below 70 • produces difficulty in adapting to the demands of life • varies from mild to profound • Down Syndrome • retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one’s genetic makeup

32. Mental Retardation – IQ score at or below 70 is the technical definition • Mild Retardation – 50 to 70 IQ score Not obvious, can take care of themselves • Moderate Retardation – 35 to 49 IQ score Take care of most personal needs Down-syndrome – usually classified in this category • Severe Retardation – 20 to 34 IQ score Constant supervision • Profound Retardation – 20 or below on IQ score Basic emotional responses, can not take care of themselves

33. Nature vs NurtureEnvironmental Influences on Intelligence Adults and Intelligence • Older people show the capacity to decline in intelligence • Biological changes also contribute • Declining Intelligence • Level of income • Level of education • History of stimulating jobs • Intact family life • Travel, cultural events, reading • Marriage with a high level of intellectual functioning • Flexible personality Home and Parenting • Parental Factors: Emotionally and verbally responsive to the child's needs • Provide enjoyable and educational toys and play times • Involved in the child's activities • Varied daily experiences during preschool years • Home is safe and organized • Encourage independent and problem solving skills