Unit II – 600 CE – 1450 CE “New Patterns of Civilization”

1. Unit II – 600 CE – 1450 CE “New Patterns of Civilization” Periodization & Native America

2. Periodization • Begins after the collapse of the great classical civilizations – China and Europe went through period of decentralization – China will recover, Rome will turn into regional kingdoms. New centers arise in Mesoamerica & Africa. • Islam will become dominant player. Religions will become unifiers of new nations as well as transcend political boundaries. • More integrated than ever – thanks to movement of Turks and Mongols – increase in long-distance trade and continued spread of religions; Movement of peoples will cause new epidemic diseases. • Although patriarchal, women gain new prominence through new monastic life of Buddhism & Christianity. • As period ends, world shifts as Europeans look outwards to explore world using “Southern” technologies and ideas (compass and gunpowder).

3. Pre-Columbian America • No conclusive evidence of human occupation before 13,000 BCE. By 9000 BCE hunting bands had reached southern tip of South America. • Over hunting of mega fauna. • Farming of three principal crops “three sisters” of corn, beans and squash – slowly introduced to North by 1000 BC to adapt to colder environment

5. North America • Anasazi of Chaco Canyon (900-1150), New Mexico. • Well-planned towns (pueblos), villages of less than 1000 • “Ritual” road – completely straight, no accommodations for terrain • Lived in “kivas” – round buildings for social meetings – during festivals people would make pilgrimages. • Collapse due to 50 year drought, harsh and semi-arid environment

7. North America • Mississippian Period (800-1500). • 5x increase in population, development of true urban centers w/sophisticated forms of government. • Social stratification, military conflict spread rapidly as competed for prestige. • Cahokia – largest city in pre-Columbian North America – 30,000 (same as contemporary London); Monk’s mound – huge earthern temple (larger than Great Pyramid); one king’s burial – several beheaded male sacrificed, 50 women strangled • Decline – warfare led to political fragmentation

8. Mesoamerica

9. Mesoamerica – General Features • Political – centered around city-states and temple centers. Urban life highly developed (Teotihuacan had 250,000 people – one of largest cities in premodern times). • Economics – agriculture highly organized (swamp lands and chinampas) w/o use of draft animals; extensive trade w/large market plaza (some international) • Religious – large portion of resources went to construction of temples; polytheistic – nature gods, war gods, city gods

11. Mesoamerican – General Features • Social – highly stratified w/bureaucracy highly trained in religion; patriarchal • Intellectual/Technological – although some metal were used for ornamentation – mostly stone; dual calendars for use in agriculture. • Art/Literature – hieroglyphic writing for religious purpose; codices burned by Spanish conquerors so little known

12. Olmecs (1500-400 BCE) • First civilization – organized in order to build complex irrigation projects in swampy delta. • Competition between city-states (large scale portraits of rulers to show strength; massive temples and tombs glorifying “divine” ruler) • Oldest known writing system, ball court and calendar system used by rest of Mesoamericans. • Decline – either by outside invaders or civil war.

13. Teotihuacan (100-650 CE), near Mexico City • Imperial Conquest – strong military, aggressive merchant class, by 200 had established hegemony over most of highland Mexico • At height – city was 8 sq. miles, grid system, dominated by massive pyramid to sun (80,000 sacrificed at dedication); Imperial Palace w/royal apartments, temple to Quetzalcoatl, defensive walls • Section of city for foreign merchants (international trade) – trade of cacao, rubber, feathers, obsidian and vegetables • Foundation for predatory militarism of Toltecs (900-1250) and Aztecs (1325-1519) • Destroyed by warfare , economic and cultural collapse and foreign nomadic invaders (similar to Romans)

17. Maya (200-850) - Political • Comparable to classical Greece w/independent, competing city-states • Political competition will lead to patronage of art and architecture • Tikal • Palenque (dynasty of Pacal who traced heritage from mother’s side so needed to prove his right to rule through massive architecture and glyphs) – pop of 100,000

18. Maya (200-850) - Political • Each city-state had a leader of government (hereditary). • Council – high priests (Ah Kin) and administrators. • Collapse – elite overthrown by starving/overworked peasants – revolution?, outside invasion by wandering barbarians (comparable to Roman collapse) • Population decline from 12 million in 750 to 1.8 million by 900.

19. Maya (200-850) - Economic • Extremely intensive agriculture (due to population pressure move from solely slash-and-burn to new swamp irrigation – chinampas) • Maximal exploitation of natural resources (analysis of tree rings indicates major drought around 850) • Intense competition for resources led to frequent warfare

20. Cacao Beans • Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major currency system in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. • The buying power of quality beans was such that 80-100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. • In some areas, such as the Yucatan, cacao beans were still used in place of small coins as late as the 1840s.

21. Maya (200-850) - Religious Ball court Chichén Itzá • Gods ranked hierarchally. • Could be evil like Jaguar God. • Believed that to avoid the end of the world had to appease gods with blood sacrifice (for some an honor, others – sacrificing captives honors their strength) • Ball courts – gave was symbol of the portals to the after world – sacrifice dead (sometimes women teams)

22. Maya (200-850) - Social • Forced labor for agriculture and temple projects. • Social tensions • 3 million (majority) were farmers • Aristocrats – wealth based on land ownership – could become priests, scribes, or artists (honored profession) • Eventually small middle class of tradesmen

23. Maya (200-850) - Intellectual • Sophisticated mathematics, concept of zero and place notation • Records of astronomy and movement of heavenly bodies (arrival of Venus was traditional time for war) Side Note – Mayan Calendar end on Dec. 21st, 2012 (winter solstice – also birthday of such people as Osiris, Dionysus, Mithras, and Christ [before the Julian calendar])

24. Maya (200-850) – Art/Literature • Art was religious or royal theme – sculpture, bas-relief, mural painting, ceramic decoration, and jade jewelry • Literate society – works of poetry, literature, history and religious thought but very little survives.

25. Toltecs (900-1250) • One of the most important of the nomadic barbarians that sacked Teotihaucan. (pillars of the warriors) • Extensive trade – with colonies throughout Mesoamerica; sea trade through Gulf of Mexico; land trade as far north as Anasazi. • Metallurgy introduced from South America (ca. 800) • Collapse – drought, nomadic barbarians, rebellions.

27. Began as Chichimec barbarians – hired as mercenaries; would raid weaker civilizations 1193 began to settle around Lake Texcoco – later forced to move onto an island. Aztecs were one minor city-state surrounded by more powerful neighbors. By late 1300s began forming alliances. During reigns of Itzcoatl (1426-1440) and Moctezuma I (1440-1468) began policy of military conquest Aztecs (1325-1521) - Political

28. Aztecs (1325-1521) - Political • Military Tyranny • Demands of tribute from subdued neighbors (who had considerable political autonomy) • Control over regional trade through warrior-merchants • Wars to capture enemies and sacrifice to gods • Overall policy of terror in governing conquered peoples (similar to Assyrian) • Ruler claimed descent from gods – but not primogenitor – chosen among royal family. Prime Minister held great power as support to ruler. Power of calpulli diminished. • Moctezuma II (1503-1520) – height of Aztec power, capital of Tenochtitlan had pop. of 200,000. • Within two decades band of 500 Spanish adventurers led by Cortes in alliance with oppressed Aztec vassals defeat.

29. Chinampas – floating gardens Much of agricultural produce of peasants was donated to gods in the form of taxes Trade fairs coincided with religious festivals – ½ population lived in urban settings and involved in trade Aztecs (1325-1521) - Economic

30. Polytheistic – over 100 – relatively fatalistic (fight between good/evil), world would end – to postpone day would make blood sacrifice to sun god, Huitzilopochtli (priest would be covered in blood or he would wear flayed skin of victim; sometimes flesh eaten). Quetzalcoatl represented forces of creation, virtue and learning (similar to Shiva) Humans could achieve heavenly salvation but had to go through a transitional stage (“purgatory”) Warfare was often regarded as a sacred ritual – fallen victims regarded as human sacrifice. Aztecs (1325-1521) - Religious

32. Aztecs (1325-1521) - Social • Very rigid social structure • Nobility controlled bureaucracy (especially tax collection), most could trace lineage to founders (women sometimes married below them – their children would be the higher status) • Males would go to temple schools • Females worked in home (especially textiles) – could be priestesses; could own property, monogamous, arranged marriages • Majority were landless indentured workers and slaves (not inherited – could sell yourself to cover debt) • Commoners part of larger kinship groups called calpulli led by chief (provided tax and conscript labor to king) – common lands to farm and lived in separate neighborhoods where controlled all of the crafts

33. Aztecs (1325-1521) - Intellectual • Calendar - Aztec year consisted of eighteen months, each having 20 days = 360 days to which five dots were added inside the circle. These dots, known as Nemontemi, were sacrificial days.  • Writing • Chinampas • Knowledge of herbal remedies

34. Aztecs (1325-1521) – Art/Literature • Hieroglyphic – no phonetic significance but could be used for religious ideas • Art – temples, carvings, and jewelry

35. South America • Series of coastal sites – along quick running rivers (little fertile land) • Most abandoned due to geographic overuse of only marginally good land • Began mountain terracing to supplement farming. • Nazca (400 BC- 450 CE); Moche (1-600 CE); Chimor (900-1476).

36. Nazca (400 BC – 450 CE) • Evidence of military struggle (taking heads of slain enemies as trophies) • Famous for monumental desert designs only visible from sky (straight lines for 7 miles) – shape of spider, humans, birds

37. Depicted chewing coca-leaves (cocaine) Frequent human sacrifice Abandoned due to shifting sand dunes. Pyramid of Sun (but made of adobe, so not well preserved) Militaristic, 450 miles Moche (1-600 CE)

38. Incan Geography

39. Inca (1438-1531) - Political • Quechua-speaking clans around Cuzco won control of territory formerly under Huari. • Topac Yupanqui (1471-1493), conquered Chimor and extended Inca rule into Ecuador and Chile. • Huayna Capac (1493-1527) consolidated the conquests; by his death, the Inca Empire stretched from Colombia to Chile, and eastward to Bolivia and Argentina. • From 9 to 13 million people were under Inca rule.

40. Inca (1438-1531) - Political • The empire was divided into four provinces, each under a governor. Capital at Cuzco • The Incas had a bureaucracy in which most of the nobility served. Local rulers continued in office in return for loyalty. They were exempt from tribute and received labor or produce from their subjects. • The Quechua language, Incan Trail, the use of colonists, and the forced transfer of peoples (like Assyrians) were important techniques for integrating the empire and avoiding rebellion.

41. All local resources were taken and redistributed: there were lands for the people, the state, and religion. Labor on state and religious land was demanded rather than tribute in kind. Less trade than Aztecs Inca (1438-1531) - Economics

42. The Inca worshipped the dead, founding culture heroes, and their king whom they regarded as divine. The worship of nature and its cycles suggest that for them time and space were sacred, and consequently the calendar was religious and each month had its own festival. Human and animal sacrifices were held only on special occasions such as the enthronement of the the king, when 200 children would be killed, or in times of crises such as famine, or epidemics. Inca (1438-1531) - Religion

43. Inca (1438-1531) - Social • Women had to weave cloth for the court and religious use. Some women were taken as concubines for the Inca or as temple servants. Women worked in the household, wove cloth, and aided in agriculture. Women could pass down property. • Most men were peasants and herders. • Universal male conscription in army (200,000 strong) • Inca nobility had many privileges and were distinguished by dress and custom. • There was no distinct merchant class because of the emphasis on self-sufficiency and state management of the economy.

44. Inca (1438-1531) – Intellectual/Technological • Terrace Farming • Military Outposts w/fine masonry • Roads and suspension bridges. • Lacked wheel

45. Inca (1438-1531) – Art/Language • Beautiful pottery and cloth. Their metallurgy was among the most advanced in the Americas. • Lacked writing system, instead using knotted strings (quipu) for accounting.

46. Comparison - Politically • Motivations for expansion • Maya: slaves • Aztec: territory, sacrifices • Inca: religious • Centralization • Aztec and Maya: city-state autonomy • Inca: most centralized • Bureaucracy • Unified language (Quechua) • Roads

47. Comparison - Socially • All • Peasant majority • Slavery of conquered peoples • Women subordinate except • Inherit land • Commerce • Maya: Merchant class • Aztec: Warrior elite • Inca: Religious elite, god-king (el Inca)

48. Compare Aztecs to Romans • 1. roads • 2. autonomy but tribute • 3. adapted ideas from conquered peoples • 4. polytheistic vs

49. Practice Question Which of the following statements accurately compare the Incan and Roman Empires? • Both emperors claimed to be descendents of the sun god. • Both empires built effective road systems which aided communication and trade throughout their empires. • The Incan empire had a tradition of representative government, while the Romans empire claimed divine right. • Both empires declined due to nomadic invasions and a significant decrease in trade. • The Roman Empire incorporated diverse people, while the Incan Empire was homogeneous.

50. Practice Question Which of the following was NOT exchanged from the Americas to Europe? • Tobacco • Tomatoes • Cattle • Potatoes • Corn