Wong Hon Chung Graduate Institute of Philosophy, National Central University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

1. A Comparative Study of Confucian and Taoist Conceptions of Well Beingand Their Implications on Health Care Wong Hon Chung Graduate Institute of Philosophy, National Central University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

2. The Confucian Conception of Well-Being • For Confucian, personal well-being or happiness consist in pursuing a virtuous life. As Confucius said in Analects, though the living condition of his disciple Yen Yuan is very poor, his happiness remains unchanged. Confucius remarked Yen Yuan is really a virtuous man (Analects, 6:9).

3. Confucius also said if getting rich were realizable, he would be willing to serve even as a groom. However, if it could not be sought, he would prefer to follow the pursuits congenial to him. What Confucius means is that we cannot fully determine by ourselves whether we can be rich. Rather, it is determined by our fate. On the other hand, to realize the virtue of ren (beneficence) is within our ability, and will be realized if we desire to realize it (Analects, 7:11).

4. Mencius’ conception of happiness is similar to that of Confucius. He said a virtuous man desire to rule an extensive territory and a vast population, but he does not enjoy in it. He enjoys in bringing peace to all people, but it is not what constitute his own nature, (i.e. The dearest urge or command from his human nature which is moral commands rooted in our moral mind), which is nothing less than the manifestation of moral nature through his body (Mencius, 7A: 21).

5. A virtuous man would like to rule people as many as possible, since if it is so he has a chance to realize his political ideal, i.e., let all people living peacefully and in security, as well as helping them to develop their moral and other talents. However, if this ideal cannot be realized, he will not just enjoy in having the ruling power.

6. Moreover, though a virtuous man hopes his political ideal to be realized, the realization and manifestation of his moral nature does not depend on it, since for Confucianism, there is not any condition for every people to realize fully their moral nature other than they desire to do so, but to realize a political ideal depends on whether the virtuous man can get the ruling power.

7. Mencius also talked about three kind of happiness cherished by a virtuous man. The first one is his parents being alive and his brothers well. The second one is not being ashamed to face Heaven above and man below. The third one is proliferation of ideal to all outstanding students through education (Mencius, 7A: 20).

8. The realization of these three kinds of happiness can also been seen as within our abilities at least in a certain sense. The realization of the first kind of happiness partly depends on whether we fulfill our duties of filial piety to take care of our parents and families. The realization of the second one depends on whether we act according to our moral nature bestowed by the heaven and have not acted wrongly to others.

9. The realization of the third one also depends partly on whether we treat others with sincerity so that all people can accept the ideal we suggest, which is also based on their moral nature.

10. To sum up, what Confucian counts as happiness can be achieved through our own moral capabilities, no matter what kind of circumstance we are situated. However, it does not mean that Confucian only concerns with the subjective aspects of personal well-being. Rather, Confucian thinks that it is the responsibility of the state to make sure people have enough means to support the livings of their own and their families.

11. As Mencius told King Hsuan of Chi that only a virtuous man can have a constant mind (i.e. always behaves morally) without a constant livelihood. As to the common people, they will not always behaves morally without a constant livelihood. To punish them after they have engaged in acts of crime is to set a trap for the people (Mencius, 1A: 7). Hence, we can demand ourselves to act morally no matter what kind of circumstance we are situated, but a ruler cannot demand his people to behave in the same way.

12. For Mencius, a state planning for its people to have enough means to support the livings of their own and their families can be seen as a good starting point of realizing the political ideal of Confucianism and is grounded on our moral compassion to others’ suffering (Mencius, 1A: 7). Both the state and ordinary people have moral obligation to concern with others suffering and should try their best to relieve their pain if possible. The difference between them is just only that the state has more power than ordinary people to fulfill its obligation.

13. Within our moral duties to the members of our society, the most stringent one should be to take care of the most needy persons, such as those single old men, old women and orphans. Mencius cited the Sage King Wen as an example of a Confucian policy maker in that King Wen took priority in caring of them (Mencius, 1B: 5). It means that it is the responsibility of the state, but it also implies that it is also the responsibility of all members of the society through taxation or other means.

14. Moreover, Confucian thinks that all human should fully develop their moral capacities and other talents. If it is hampered by natural or social lotteries, such as suffered from diseases, which is not due to the person own fault, we have a moral duty to assist them to overcome these kinds of obstruction. The person who fulfills this duty is participating the creative process of Tao and is praised as the sage (The Doctrine of Means, Chap.22).

15. We may say that from Confucian perspective the well being of every individual consists in full development of its moral capability and other talents. Any factor that may contribute or hamper human development, such as environment, housing, education, family relationship and health etc., can be constructed as an objective index of well-being.

16. The Taoist Conception of ‘Happiness’ • In contrast, Taoists criticize all doctrines which suggest any conception of well-being or happiness for people, whatever their conception may be, since Taoists think that the conflicts between people raised from such kind of suggestion. As Lao Tzu said in Tao Te Ching,

17. That the whole world knows to deem the beautiful as 'beautiful' simply creates the ‘ugly’. That the whole world knows to deem the good as 'good' simply creates the ‘evil’ (Tao Te Ching, Chap.2).

18. The name of ‘ugly’ raises as there is some standard of beauty suggested, and conflicts begin as all people want to reach that standard. There is also the case in the comparison between good and evil, as well as between happy and unhappy

19. Hence, Lao Tzu blamed against any ruler in pursuing excessive material satisfaction, such as valuing limited commodities, since it only leads the people to be thieves. For Lao Tzu, excessive material satisfaction is nothing but only causes harm to our body and mind (Tao Te Ching, Chap.3).

20. Taoist also argues against any doctrine that counts different kinds of virtue as human perfection. As Lao Tzu said, • Exterminate the sage, discard the wise, and the people will benefit a hundredfold. Exterminate benevolence, discard rectitude, and the people will again be filial. Exterminate ingenuity, discard profit, and there will be no more thieves and bandits (Tao Te Ching, Chap.19)

21. Why Taoist disvalues these kinds of virtue? If someone claims that he is a sage, he is not really a sage at all, since a real sage does not feel that what he behaves is different from others. Hence, for Taoist, the key to fully achieve one kind of virtue is the agent has to ‘forget’ he has realized that virtue. All virtues Lao Tzu argued against in this passage can also be interpreted in this way.

22. Moreover, there are many parables in the book of Chuang Tsu which reported dialogues between the handicapped and the Sage, such as Confucius. One of them became handicapped as he committed a crime, and Confucius criticized him. However, the handicapped did not accept the criticism. For him, his handicapped is just a moment of natural process. He does not think he has to feel sorrow for it.

23. Someone may interpret Taoism as a theory that opposes against all positive value, as if it counts Confucianism as its rival. If it was so, then Taoism was debased as a theory it criticized, which denied what its counter theory affirmed and affirmed what its counter theory denied, as Chuang Tsu’s remarks on the dissension between the Confucians and the Mohists.

24. Rather, we should interpret Taoism as a theory reflects upon what any positive theory affirms. Taoists do not ask the question of “what”, but “how”; they do not assent to or dissent from what a positive theory suggests, rather, they just ask how we can fully realize the values which the positive theory affirm.

25. Referring to the question of well-being, how can we be happy according to Taoism? I think the answer will be like this: do not indulge in material pleasure, do not compare with others and think that you are inferior to others, content with every moment in your life will make you feel happy.

26. Implications on Health Care • As we have seen before, from Confucian perspective, it is the responsibility of the state to take care those most needy. It is an extension of moral feelings on others sufferings to political domain. However, it does not mean that the state have to provide all goods and services to meet all the needs of its people. Rather, they should pay by themselves if they can do so.

27. When Mencius said a state should plan for its people to have enough means to support the livings of their own and their families, he means that the state should not interrupt its people to earn their livings and should take some positive steps to make sure their earnings is sufficient to support their families. However, it also implies that the people should do these by themselves, with the help of their state. Referring to our health care needs, it means that the people have a duty to pay for them if they can afford those expenses.

28. In Confucianism, since our own bodies are gifts from our parents, it is a duty of filial piety to keep our bodies as healthy as possible, and should not let them hurt without good moral reason. Our bodies can also be seen as vehicles to realize our morality. If we have a duty to be moral, we also have a duty to keep our bodies healthy.

29. Moreover, since we have a duty to support our families, we should also have a duty to pay for their health care costs. Hence, the state should suggest its people to establish their own health saving accounts, which are responsible by themselves, in order to make sure that they can support the health care expenses of themselves and their families now and in the future. This health saving scheme can be viewed as one of the state’s plans for its people’s means of support.

30. However, it does not mean that our moral duty of beneficence is limited to our families only. In Confucianism, the sense of compassion cannot bear to see the sufferings of others is equal to the virtue of ren (beneficence), which is the highest among all virtues, and filial piety is a starting point of practicing ren, since this sense of compassion manifest most directly through our attitudes towards our parents, but it should also extend to other humans and even other beings.

31. Hence, we should support the policy of our state in assisting those who cannot afford to pay the health care expenses of themselves and their families, provided that it will not undermine our ability to meet our basic needs. Since most people have to responsible for their own health care expenses through health saving accounts if they can do so, the burden of public subsidies to the needy persons will be greatly relieved.

32. As to the Taoist conception of well-being, it implies that all activities which aim at excessive material satisfaction, which are also harmful to our health, as well as all activities which cause pollution and damage our environment and living condition should be criticized.

33. Moreover, as indicated in the stories of the handicapped stated in the book of Chuang Tsu, we may reform our health care institutions so that let people asking for help there do not feel that they are “patients”. I think the termination of all forms of stigmatization may be a good starting point towards this ideal.

34. Thank you for your attention!