Perception and Learning in Organizations

1. CHAPTER 3 Lecturer: LONG BUNTENG Organization Behavior MN201 Perception and Learningin Organizations

2. Vodafone Executive Grahame Maher Vodafone executive Grahame Maher keeps his perceptions in focus by discarding the executive suite and working alongside employees every day. Bob Finlayson/Newspix

3. Perception Defined The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information in order to make sense of the world around us. Bob Finlayson/Newspix

4. Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting Selective Attention Organization and Interpretation Attitudes and Behavior Perceptual Process Model Environmental Stimuli

5. Selective Attention • Characteristics of the object • size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty • Perceptual context • Characteristics of the perceiver • attitudes • perceptual defense • expectations -- condition us to expect events

6. Perceptual Organization/Interpretation • Categorical thinking • Mostly unconscious process of organizing people/things • Perceptual grouping principles • Closure -- filling in missing pieces • Identifying trends • Similarity or proximity • Mental models • Broad world-views or ‘theories-in-use’ • Help us to quickly make sense of situations • May block recognition of new opportunities/perspectives

7. Social Identity Theory Oracle Corp. Employee Employees at other firms An Individual’s Social Identity Live in the United States People living in other countries Graduates from other schools University of Massachussetts Graduate

8. Social Identity Theory Features • Categorization process • compare characteristics of our groups with other groups • Homogenization process • similar traits within a group; different traits across groups • Differentiation process • develop less favorable images of people in groups other than our own

9. Stereotyping & Social Identity in Engineering Women are underrepresented in engineering and computer science partly because: • Social identity • Women dislike the ”geek” stereotype of engineers and computer scientists • Sex role stereotyping • Women discouraged from becoming engineers • Prejudice • Still some bias against female engineering students Mel Melcon/ Los Angeles Times

10. Stereotyping • Process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category • Categorical thinking • Strong need to understand and anticipate others’ behavior • Enhances our self-perception and social identity Mel Melcon/ Los Angeles Times

11. Minimizing Stereotyping Biases • Diversity awareness training • Educate employees about the benefits of diversity and dispel myths • Meaningful interaction • Contact hypothesis • Decision-making accountability • Making people accountable for their decisions motivates them to consider objective info rather than stereotypes

12. Attribution Process • Internal Attribution • Perception that person’s behavior is due to motivation/ability rather than situation or fate • External Attribution • Perception that behavior is due to situation or fate rather than the person

13. Frequently Consistency Seldom Frequently Distinctiveness Seldom Seldom Consensus Frequently Rules of Attribution Internal Attribution External Attribution

14. Attribution Errors • Fundamental Attribution Error • attributing own actions to external factors and other’s actions to internal factors • Self-Serving Bias • attributing our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors

15. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle Supervisor forms expectations Employee’s behavior matches expectations Expectations affect supervisor’s behavior Supervisor’s behavior affects employee

16. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Contingencies Self-fulfilling prophecy effect is strongest: • At the beginning of the relationship (e.g. employee joins the team) • When several people have similar expectations about the person • When the employee has low rather than high past achievement

17. Other Perceptual Errors • Primacy • first impressions • Recency • most recent information dominates perceptions • Halo • one trait forms a general impression • Projection • believe other people do the same things or have the same attitudes as you

18. Improving Perceptions • Empathy • Sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situation of others • Cognitive and emotional component • Self-awareness • Awareness of your values, beliefs and prejudices • Applying Johari Window

19. Feedback Open Area Open Area Blind Area Blind Area Disclosure Hidden Area Unknown Area Hidden Area Unknown Area Know Yourself (Johari Window) Unknown to Self Known to Self Known to Others Unknown to Others

20. Definition of Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior tendency) that occurs as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment

21. Learning and Behavior • Learning affected behavior through three MARS model elements: • Ability -- learning increases skills and knowledge • Role perceptions -- learning clarifies roles and priorities • Motivation -- learning is necessary for some need fulfillment

22. Behavior Modification • We “operate” on the environment • alter behavior to maximize positive and minimize adverse consequences • Learning is viewed as completely dependent on the environment • Human thoughts are viewed as unimportant

23. Antecedents What happens before behavior Behavior What person says or does Consequences What happens after behavior Warning light flashes Machine operator turns off power Co-workers thank operator A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification Example

24. Contingencies of Reinforcement Consequence is introduced No consequence Consequence is removed Behavior increases/ maintained Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction Punishment Behavior decreases

25. Continuous Fixed ratio Variable ratio Fixed interval Variable interval Schedules of Reinforcement behaviors 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Time (Days) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

26. Behavior Modification in Practice • Behavior modification is used in: • every day life to influence behavior of others • company programs to reduce absenteeism, improve safety, etc. • Behavior modification problems include: • Reward inflation • Ethical concern that variable ratio schedule is a lottery • Behaviorist philosophy vs. learning through mental processes

27. Social Learning Theory • Behavioral modeling • Observing and modeling behavior of others • Learning behavior consequences • Observing consequences that others experience • Self-reinforcement • Reinforcing our own behavior with consequences within our control

28. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model Concrete experience Active experimentation Reflective observation Abstract conceptualization

29. Developing a Learning Orientation • Value the generation of new knowledge • Reward experimentation • Recognize mistakes as part of learning • Encourage employees to take reasonable risks

30. Action Learning • Experiential learning in which employees, usually in teams, investigate and apply solutions to a situation that is both real and complex, with immediate relevance to the company • Concrete experience • Learning meetings • Team conceptualizes and applies a solution to a problem

31. Perception and Learning in Organizations