Gardner & Gardner (1969)

1. Gardner & Gardner (1969) Teaching Language to a Chimp

2. Context • Language is a complex cognitive function seemingly exclusive to humans. • Previous experiments tried to teach language to dolphins, gorillas, chimpanzees, and parrots. • Hayes & Hayes (1951) • Aim: Teach chimps to use spoken English • Findings: Vicki, the chimp, only mastered 4 words • Mama, papa, cup and up. • Critique: • Biological difference between chimp and human vocal tracts • Contextual issues- chimps spontaneously vocalise in times of danger.

3. Aim • Is language unique to humans? • Look for evidence of acquisition of: • Vocabulary- using signs consistently without prompting. • Differentiation-use of different signs in different contexts, indicating understanding. • Transfer-generalisation of usage of a sign from original context to a new situation. • Combination-consistent and meaningful use of two or more words with new or specific meanings.

4. Procedure-Sample • Washoe the chimp • Aged 8-14mnths • Wild-caught- lab chimps could not be attained so young.

5. Procedure- Method • ASL (American Sign Language) • Created a social environment in which all researchers communicated with each other and to Washoe using ASL. • To ensure signing was not perceived to have a lower social status than talking. • Used 3 training techniques: • Imitation- Researcher signs. Imitation rewarded by tickling. Once learned imitation initiated by making the ‘sign’ sign or asking ‘what is this?’ in sign language. • Babbling-Human babies babble (production of random speech sounds). Positively reinforced through clapping and imitating. • Operant Conditioning- Shape Washoe’s signing by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the actual sign. • A range of outings and activities were designed to maximise opportunities for signing and introducing new words.

6. Procedure- Measure/ DV • Initially kept a complete record (up to 16th month). • As vocabulary expanded only new signs were recorded, if they met 4 criteria: • Spontaneous (no prompting) • Appropriate context • Recorded by 3 researchers independently • Used at least once a day on 15 consecutive days

7. Findings • Babbling • Developed later than in human babies • Made gestures resembling signs • Rewarded as actual sign • Researcher signs actual sign in appropriate context • E.g. In imitation game Washoe made a sign similar to ‘funny’. Researchers then made actual sign whilst laughing and smiling. They then repeated the sign in every funny situation until Washoe learnt to use it in context.

8. Findings Cont. • Imitation • Used successfully • E.g. Washoe resisted having teeth brushed. Showed sign for toothbrush but did not imitate. At 10mnths signed toothbrush on seeing a pot of toothbrushes in the bathroom. • Delayed imitation- sign used purely to communicate as she was unlikely to ask for something she didn’t like.

9. Findings Cont. • Operant Conditioning • E.g. Shaped sign for open from her initial pounding on a door through demonstration and reinforcement. • Washoe generalised sign to open windows, boxes and jars.

10. Findings Cont. • 4 language criteria • Vocabulary • 34 signs learnt in the first 24mnths. • Differentiation • E.g. Washoe used ‘more’ to mean ‘do it again’ and ‘flower’ to mean ‘smell’ (referring to tobacco) • Transfer • E.g. ‘flower’ generalised to pictures of flowers. • Combinations • Performed spontaneously. Not imitated. • E.g. ‘Gimme tickle’ never asked by experimenters.

12. Conclusions • Chimps intellectually capable of acquiring signs and using them to communicate. • Expanding vocabulary • Using nouns and verbs • Spontaneous transfer of meanings • Rudimentary combinations of signs

13. Evaluation- Strengths • Use of ASL • Chimpanzees use verbal communication for different reasons than humans. • Chimps are very dexterous at using their hands • Lab chimps often spontaneously make begging gestures. • Context of learning • Situation similar to a human child • Immersed in shared language • Controlled for observer bias • Experimenters were blind to what Washoe was looking at when she signed. • High in reliability • Strict criteria for recording sign as learned. • Improves inter-rater reliability.

14. Evaluation- Weaknesses • Washoe did not demonstrate understanding of syntax • Rules determining the meaning of strings of words • E.g. Word order or word endings • Could not demonstrate whether Washoe understood the difference between ‘Washoe tickle’ and ‘tickle Washoe’ • Invalid measure- did not test structure dependence (understanding of word order) • Ethical Issues • Deprived of social contact with other chimps- chimps usually form strong social bonds • Caught from wild • Distressing • Case Study

15. Alternative Evidence- Supporting • Terrace (1979) replicated Gardner and Gardner’s findings with NimChimpsky (a chimp). • Same issues proving whether syntax had been understood. • Kanzi the Bonobo • Method: Lexigram- board with visual symbols representing words and concepts. Asks and answers questions using the board. • Findings: Could correctly respond to ‘Put the pine needles on the ball’ and ‘Put the ball on the pine needles’. Evidence of structure-dependence.

17. Alternative Evidence –Supporting Cont. • Herman et al. (1984) • Bottlenosed dolphins • Akeakami taught language based on visual signs • Responded to sentences in which meaning is dependent on word order • Phoenix taught acoustic language • Responded to instructions containing a verb relating 2 objects • ‘surface hoop fetch bottom basket’ • Could only respond with actions- not the production of language

18. Past Exam Questions Section A • Describe the findings and conclusions of Gardner and Gardner’s (1969) research ‘Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee’. [12] 2010 Section B • With reference to alternative evidence, critically assess Gardner and Gardner’s (1969) research ‘Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee’. [12] 2011 • Critically assess Gardner & Gardner’s (1969) research ‘Teaching sign language to a chimpanzee’. [12] 2009

19. Revision Aid • Follow this link for a quiz on Gardner and Gardner’s study: • http://www.holah.karoo.net/gardnermulti.htm • Here is an article on Washoe’s capture if you want more details on ethical issues: WARNING! This article may be distressing and biased. • http://www.friendsofwashoe.org/timeline_chimp_capture.shtml