Understanding Motivation Theories and Processes in Leadership

1. Motivation Part 1

2. Report Format for this section Example of the report format: 4 Motivation and motivation theories 4.1 What is Motivation 4.2 Content Motivation theories 4.2.1 Economic model of motivation 4.2.2 The Hawthone effect 4.2.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 4.2.4 Alderfer 4.2.5 McClellands ‘Needs’theory 4.2.6 Herzberg’s Hygiene and motivating factors Next Week 4.3 Process Motivation theories 4.3.1 Equity theory 4.3.2. Expectancy theory (VIE) 4.3.3 Goal setting theory 4.4 Reinforcement 4.5 Leader Member Exchange 4.6 The leader’s view: Motivation to lead

3. 2. MOTIVATION • ”… a basic psychological process” Movere (Latin) = “to move” • “…anything that affects behavior in pursuing a certain outcome.” (Lussier & Achua, 2004: 74) • “…a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal.” (Luthans, 2005: 230)

4. THE MOTIVATION PROCESS "A motive (drive) is an inner state that energises, activates or moves ... behaviour towards goals".

5. Exercise: Think of a behaviour from your recreation/sporting experience where you did it to meet a ‘need’ you perceived you have. Go through the model and identify what you experienced at each step of this process…

6. THE MOTIVATION PROCESS Needs Drives Behaviour Goals,rewards (motives) (actions) (satisfy needs) Avoid: Reduce: Recreation: Improved: depression, boredom, weight trng, self-esteem, guilt, fear of weight aerobics, well-being, gain, or looking swimming, enjoyment, unattractive walking relaxation

7. Primary and Secondary motives • Primary motives are Instinctive, inherent, innate, unlearned • physiological, biological • e.g., hunger, thirst, avoidance of pain, • sex, maternal instinct. • unlearned but not physiologically based • e.g., curiosity, activity, affection • Secondary motives learned (from experience) • e.g., power, achievement, affiliation, status

8. Extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation, & amotivation • Intrinsic motivation (autonomous orientation): • Internally generated; self-granted, psychic rewards: • e.g., feelings of: achievement, responsibility being challenged or competitive. Inherent enjoyment & satisfaction. • Tend to satisfy higher order (psychological) needs. • Extrinsic motivation (some controlled & some autonomous orientation): • Distributed by other people; tangible and visible to others; • e.g., financial, material, or social rewards from the environment. • Tend to satisfy lower order (physiological) needs. • Amotivation (impersonal orientation): • Unwillingness, lack of intent to act, go through the motions, disinterested in the activity – Competence? Ability?.

9. Self-determination Theory Motivational Continuum NOT SELF-DETERMINED COMPLETELY SELF-DETERMINED Relatively Controlled Relatively Autonomous AmotivationExtrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation External Introjected Identified Integrated Regulation Regulation Regulation Regulation Compliance Ego Personal Importance Congruent with own Rewards Guilt/Shame needs Novelty Challenge Enjoyment Competence, Autonomy, Relatedness

10. Extrinsic motivation (4 types) • Externally regulated • interpersonally controlled by others; no choice (no autonomy); comply to avoid punishment) • eg parent forces child to complete homework. • Introjected regulation • (intrapersonal control somewhat by you, but to avoid guilt or anxiety) • eg sit class exam. Little autonomy or choice. • Identified regulation • you complete a task set by others because you identify with (value) the goal which is important to you) • eg study for exam to help you pass the course; exercise for health. Some autonomy or choice. • Integrated regulation • autonomy or your choice because the outcomes meet your extrinsic needs; rather than for inherent enjoyment) • e.g., write journal article but its often hard work. (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 72)

11. Class exercise • Complete: Motives of physical activity/exercise survey Which of the types (EM/IM etc) is your main motivation for exercise? • As a leader developing an exercise program, how may you use this information? • Why would this survey be useful to give your participants from a leader’s perspective??

12. Extrinsic motivation (& exercise) 1. Externally regulated EM (no choice, forced by others): • Because other people say I should • Because my friends/family/partner say I should • Because others will not be pleased with me if I don’t • Because I feel under pressure from friends/family to exercise 2. Introjected regulation EM (some choice, but aim to avoid guilt or anxiety): • Because I feel guilty when I don’t exercise • Because I feel ashamed when I miss an exercise session • Because I feel like a failure when I haven’t exercised in a while (Ingledew et al., 2009, pp. 346)

13. Extrinsic motivation (& exercise) 3. Identified regulation EM (you complete a task set by others because you identify with the goal which is important to you): • Because I value the benefits of exercise • Because it’s important to me to exercise regularly • Because I think it is important to make the effort to exercise regularly • Because I get restless if I don’t exercise regularly (Ingledew et al., 2009, pp. 346)

14. Intrinsic motivation (& exercise) • Intrinsic Regulation IM (you engage in exercise because you want to): • Because it’s fun • Because I enjoy my exercise sessions • Because I find exercise a pleasurable activity • Because I get pleasure and satisfaction from participating in exercise (Ingledew et al., 2009, pp. 346)

15. Intrinsic motivation (self-determined behaviour) Sustaining IM requires: • Autonomy in choosing an activity & a perception of personal causation (high self-determination = degree to which behaviour comes from self); • Feelings of competence for the activity (reinforced by positive performance feedback from significant others) as part of: • Relatedness (belongingness) – a secure relational base with warm & caring relationships with coaches, teachers & others & connecting with & caring for them. (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 70)

16. Content motivation theories “… focus on explaining and predicting behavior based on people’s needs”. (Lussier & Achua, 2004, p.76) “Concerned with identifying need/drives that people have, … and types of goals… people strive to attain … to be satisfied and perform well”. (Luthans, 2005, p.240)

17. Economic Model (Smith, Taylor) • EXERCISE • Click on the link on the webpage to the Theory X/Y test. Do the test and check your score… • Did you score as a Theory X or Theory Y person? • Were you surprised by your score on this exercise?

18. Economic Model (Smith, Taylor) • Adam Smith (1776) : “The Wealth of Nations” • Division of labour  workers in factory settings became likened to machines that could be motivated by pay. • Frederick Taylor (1911) (Scientific Management) • “workers motivated primarily by money; • payment by results; • they are inherently lazy; • they must be ‘bribed’ to work; • their work needs to be planned for them in great detail”. • Theory X assumption (Viljoen & Dann, 2003, p.9; Robbins et al., 2006, p.43).

19. Hawthorne Studies (Elton Mayo) 1924-1932 • HAWTHORNE experiments at a power plant in Chicago. • what effect changing aspects of a group’s work, the environment etc would have on their motivation. • Surprisingly each time their conditions changed the work rate went up, even when he finally changed back to the original conditions. • People expect that a change in the environment (e.g., improved working conditions) should result in a change in their work performance and their behaviour tends to mirror this expectation (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968).

20. The Hawthorne studies contd. • “Relay Assembly Test Room studies”– group of 6 women; over 5 years work hours and rest breaks were varied; but saw themselves as a team with a friendly supervisor. • Importance of social factors, supervision (leadership style) – participatory supervision, group size, group dynamics. • Recognition of the human factor (psychological & social factors) in motivating workers. (Luthans, 2005, p.16)

21. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

22. Self-actualisation • “Self-actualization is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming”. (Hersey et al., 2001, p.38) • Self-actualisation is a very special feeling characterised by contentment, relaxation and a sense that an individual has attained almost everything they aspired to achieve. • Self-actualisation is similar to the attitudinal concept of leisure, where ‘being at leisure’ includes: intrinsic satisfaction, freedom of choice and enjoyment (Howat, Howat, & Jones, 1995)

23. Alderfer (ERG model)

24. Alderfer (ERG model)

25. McClelland: Acquired needs theory • People motivated by different ‘needs’ • Need for Achievement (nAch) • 10% population • self-motivated (intrinsic) • set moderately difficult goals • immediate feedback • preoccupied with the task • Need for Power (n Pow), • Need for Affiliation (n Aff)(Daft & Pirola-Merlo, 2009, p.239)

26. McClelland: Acquired needs theory • McClelland’s main contribution is that people with different kinds of needs are motivated differently. • n- Ach-must be given challenging tasks • n- Pow-should be given opportunities to manage and lead a team of people • n- Aff-should be provided with a cooperative working environment in order to gain their best performance.

27. Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene model Dissatisfiers (hygiene factors) • working conditions • fringe benefits • supervision • pay? (job context) Physiological needs lower order needs Satisfiers (motivators) • achievement • responsibility • recognition • work itself (job content) psychological needs higher order needs (Daft & Pirola-Merlo, 2009, p.231)

28. Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene model • According to Herzberg, management should focus on rearranging work so that motivator factors can take effect. • Three ways: • Job enlargement • Job rotation • Job enrichment