Roman Empire: Age of Augustus - Government, Army, Society, and Literature

1. Chapter 6: The Roman Empire

2. The Age of Augustus (31 BC - AD14) • 27 BC – Octavian proclaimed his victories against Antony had restored the Republic • Knowing that the republic could not be restored to its old form, he worked to find a compromise • The senate gave him the title of “Augustus” - the revered one • He preferred “princeps” – first among equals • The system he established is sometimes called a principate • A constitutional monarch as co-ruler w/ the senate • The title of princeps itself held no power • Until 23 BC, Augustus also held the consulship, giving him imperium • After 23 BC, he gave up the consulship and was granted maiusimperium “greater imperium than all others” • Also given the power of a tribune without actually holding the office • Able to propose legislation and also veto any item of public business • Officials continued to be elected, but since Augustus held more authority • Caused involvement in elections to decline and eventually the popular assemblies cease to have any real authority

3. The Army • Peace in the empire & security of the princeps depended on the army • Primarily responsible guarding the frontiers & maintain domestic order in the provinces • The standing army was 28 legions • A legion consisted of 5400 soldiers (150,000 total troops) • Not large by modern terms or for the size of the empire (50 million total pop.) • Legionaries served 20 years, recruited only from the citizenry and (under Augustus) mainly from Italy • Auxiliares numbered 130,000; noncitizens; served 24 year terms; they and their families received citizenship after they finished The Praetorian Guard • roughly 9000 elite soldiers • Tasked w/ protecting the princeps • Recruited from Italian citizens & served 16 yr tours • Would become important in making & deposing emperors

4. Victorious generals were hailed as imperator (emperor) • although we refer to Augustus as emperor, it didn’t become common for a Roman ruler until Vespasian (69-79) Provinces and Frontiers • Under Augustus, provincial governors received a regular salary, so corruption was not as big a problem • Since governors had few assistants, the policy of working with local elite and a degree of self-government by locals became policy • By 15 BC, Augustus began looking to expand north • 9 BC – reached the Elbe River in eastern Germany • AD 9 – General Varus lost 3 entire legions after a massacre led by Arminius (a German tribal leader, despite being a Roman scout and citizen) • Defeat muted Augustus’s desire to advance in central Europe • Roman historians blame Varus completely for the defeat

5. Augustan Society The Social Order • Augustus adopted a senatorial order as a ruling class • Must own 1 million sesterces in property to belong to the senatorial class • Reduced the senate from 1000 to 600, but added new families from across Italy • Equestrian order expanded • Opened up to all Roman citizens in good standing & possessing 400,000 sesterces in property • Could hold military & political offices but less important than positions of senatorial class • At the end of their career, could be awarded membership in senatorial class • Citizens not of either class belonged to the lower class • Majority of population • Lost most political power, given free grain & public spectacles to keep them from causing problems

6. Augustus’ Reforms • Created an imperial cult to strengthen the tie between religion and the state • Never claimed to be a god • Allowed the veneration of Julius Caesar as a deity • Allowed the building of temples to Augustus and Roma • Deified following his death in A.D. 14 • Augustus believed that Roman morals had been corrupted during the late republic • Created social legislation to slow/halt decline • Luxury had undermined roman morality • easy divorce, declining birthrate in upper class, hedonistic behavior • Made divorce near impossible, limits on banquet expenses, adultery became a crime, tax laws penalized the unmarried and small families • Exiled his own daughter for adultery

7. Golden Age of Latin Literature • Augustan literature is considered the peak of Latin literature • Augustus patronized the greatest writers in the empire to exemplify the qualities of duty, piety & faithfulness Virgil (70 – 19 BC) • greatest of all Roman poets • greatest work – Aeneid (epic poem about the founding of Rome) • other poems: • Georgics (about farming life) • Eclogues (a series of stories told by a group of shepherds talking to each other) Horace (65 BC – 8 BC??) • best known for his Odes (4 books of poems about various subjects concerning Roman society) • sexual immorality, greed, laziness, & job dissatisfaction • Odes I, 11 – “carpe diem” • Also wrote a collection of short stories called Satires • Attacked movements in society, not people individually • (contains one story called “Town Mouse, Country Mouse”)

8. Ovid (43 BC - AD 14) • Part of the privileged upper class, ridiculed Augustus’s morality policies • supported by Augustus until he wrote Art of Love • a collection of lewd & explicit stories • Refused to heed Augustus’s wishes, implicated in the same scandal that caused the emperor’s daughter to be exiled from Rome • died in exile in a small town on the coast of the Black Sea Livy (59 BC – AD 17) • Most famous prose work of the golden age • Celebrated Rome’s greatness • Masterpiece was a history of Rome from foundation to 9 BC • 142 total books, only 35 have survived • Not overly concerned w/ accuracy of his stories but was a fine story teller • Despite flaws, his work remained the standard for Roman history for generations

9. The Early Empire (14-180) • No real opposition to Augustus’s choice of successor, Tiberius • Established the Julio-Claudian dynasty • Tiberius (14-37) • Augustus’s stepson • Competent general, able administrator, tried to get Senate involved • Caligula (37-41) • Great-grandson of Augustus • Tyrannical, erratic, perverse, insane by most accounts • Killed by his Praetorian guard • Claudius (41-54) • Great-nephew of Augustus • Physically disabled but well educated & competent ruler • Nero (54-68) • Spoiled, neglectful of the military • Eliminated anything/body that stood in his way

10. Dynasty fell during the reign of Nero • Became emperor at 16, advised by his tutor, Seneca • Soon became interested in anything but ruling (acting, violin playing, singing, horse racing, other more “Caligula-like” activities) • Gained the animosity of the senate and Roman people by eliminating several prominent figures • a popular general, his mother, political “thorns”, had Seneca kill himself to test his convictions • believed to have had an entire series of city blocks burned to expand his palace • 68 - His guards abandoned him during a revolt; without protection, Nero chose to stab himself in the throat • “What an artist the world is losing in me.”

11. The Flavians (69-96) • Civil war broke out following the revolt in 68. • Galba replaced Nero, but was defeated by Otho, then Vitellius and finally Vespasian took control • know as the Year of the Four Emperors • The Flavians dropped the title of princeps and used imperator • Vespasian’s (69-79) ascension proved that an emperor could be chosen outside of Rome and did not have to be descended from Julius Caesar • Reformed the economy after Nero’s extravagance and the civil wars of 68-69 • Followed by his sons, Titus (79-81) and Domitian (81-96)

12. The Five Good Emperors (96-180) • The benefits of the PaxRomana were most evident during the rule of the “five good emperors” • Absolute monarchs, but known for tolerance & diplomacy • Nerva (96-98) - chosen by the Senate to succeed Domitian • Old when he become emperor, adopted Trajan to have an heir • Marcus UlpiusNervaTrajan (98-117) was succeeded by his 2nd cousin, Hardian • Hadrian traveled extensively, also known as a great builder (Hadrian’s Wall, the Parthenon) • Hardian adopted Antoninus Pius (138-161) • Considered the most productive of the five • Chose to stay close to Rome and made great use of the Senate • Agiain, w/o an heir, Pius adopted Marcus Aurelius • Marcus Aurelius (161-180) • Considered by many to be a philospher-king like Plato spoke of • Stoic author of Meditations – about the stoic ideal as a religious concept

13. Frontiers and Provinces • At its height in 2nd cent. AD, the Roman Empire covered 3.5 million sq. mi and had a pop. of over 50 million • While imperial administration provided a degree of unity, local customs were given a great deal of leeway • 212 – Caracalla granted all free inhabitants citizenship • Latin was the language of the West, Greek in the East • Local languages still existed, many inhabitants spoke neither Latin nor Greek • Augustus had advised against future expansion & most 1st cent emperors followed his example • 54 BC - Claudius annexed Britain • Trajan broke w/ the policy; annexing Dacia (Romania), Mesopotamia, & Sinai peninsula • Hadrian withdrew from Mesopotamia and began fortifying the frontier • The glaring weakness of the empire was apparent: no strategic reserve • If revolt broke, out troops had to be moved from one frontier to another

14. Role of the Army • AD 14 – 25 legions; 30 by 117 • By 200 - 400,000 total troops (standing & auxiliary) • Legionaries had to be citizens, so Augustus’ army was primarily Italian • By AD 100, the Italian reluctance to serve in the army led to recruitment in the provinces • By this time, only 1 In 5 soldiers were Italian • Military camps became centers of cultural diffusion in the provinces • Spread the Latin language & Roman institutions to the conquered • Presence of large # of troops and their women & slaves encouraged the development of trade in those regions • Cities grew up around the camps or nearby colonies • Local officials chosen from the upper-class • No pay, but conferred citizenship on officials & tied them to the Rome • Led to a distinct change in the Senate • 50 – few non-Italian senators; 200 – less than ½ of senators Italian

15. The Silver Age of Latin Literature • Literature from the 150 yrs following the reign of Augustus is referred to the “silver” age • good but not equal to the “golden” age • Seneca (4 BC-AD 65) • Stoic philosopher, tutor to Nero & advisor early in Nero’s reign • Considered the greatest Roman stoic, but didn’t always live according to his words • Ordered by Nero to take his own life to test his commitment • Tacitus (56-120) • greatest historian of the silver age • author of Annals and Histories • felt it was his duty to display the corruption & decadence of Rome’s upper class • Juvenal (55-128) • Considered the best poet of the silver age • Satirist, attacked the fickleness of Roman women, abuse of slaves, excess of emperors, immigration, his own poverty & inequality in society

16. Imperial Rome • Largest city in the empire (close to 1 million by 32 BC) • Nationalities from all over the empire, often with entire neighborhoods inhabited by specific groups • Overcrowded & noisy, wagon traffic was banned during the day • Crime was an issue especially in the poorer neighborhoods • Rich lived in comfortable villas, poor lived in apartment blocks called insulae • Made of concrete w/ wooden walls; prone to collapse and fire • Many great public buildings (temples, baths, amphitheatres, govt. buildings) • Rome was also a great parasite • 200,000 poor received free grain (6 million sacks/year) • Had to import food from all over the empire • Aqueducts carried water from many miles away to supply the city

17. The Gladiatorial Spectacles • In addition to food, entertainment was provided by prominent figures • Political in purpose: kept the “mob” distracted from how miserable their lives were • 3 main types: chariot races, plays, & gladiatorial matches • Spectacles were focused around Roman religious festivals • Over 100 state holidays in the Roman calendar • Many sporting events were held in large amphitheaters. • Most famous was the gladiatorial matches • In provinces & during some periods in Rome fights were to the death

18. earliest discovered amphitheater was in Pompeii (75 BC) • best known of all amphitheaters was the Colosseumin Rome • It held 50,000 spectators (roughly the size of larger sports arenas today) • Largest amphitheater was Circus Maximus (held about 200,000 spectators) • Roman society was violent and brutal & thus was their entertainment • Gladiators were trained fighters, usually slaves or criminals • Games were from dawn to dusk • Some free men fought in hope of fame & fortune • Most were one on one, refereed & scripted • Some events might involve unarmed criminals and wild animals

19. Disaster in Southern Italy • 79 – Mt. Vesuvius erupts, burying Pompeii in volcanic ash and Herculaneum in mudslides • Providing modern archeologists with insight as to the daily lives of Romans from this period Roman Law • Cornerstones of modern legal principals come from this time period • Concept of natural rights, Innocent until proven guilty, defendant’s right to defend themselves in court, judges expected to weigh evidence before judging Political & Military Woes • Commodus’ assassination led to a period of civil war • Replaced by Septimus Severus (193-211) • Severan dynasty created a military monarchy • Army expanded, pay increased & officers promoted to important govt. positions

20. The Late Roman Empire (p.166- Reforms of Diocletian & Constantine • Diocletian restructured the empire • # of provinces increased by over 100 • Provinces grouped into 12 dioceses • Dioceses grouped into 4 prefectures, each w/ a governor • The empire was split into halves: West (Roman) & East (Byzantine) • Each prefecture ruled by an “Augustus” or “Caesar” but Diocletian retained control • Diocletian had decided that Rome was too big to be run by one person • tetrarchy – rule of four • Each half ruled by an Augustus; assisted by the Caesar or vice-emperor • 312 – Constantine took control of the west; 324 – defeated fellow emperor, Licinius, and assumed total control

21. Between 324-330, Constantine moved the capital from Rome to the eastern city of Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople • 312 – Constantine converted to Christianity • 313 – Edict of Milan – legalized Christian worship • Theodosius adopted Christianity as the official religion • 378 – Visigoth revolt routs a Roman army • 402 – western capital moved to Ravenna • 410 – Visigoths sack Rome • Also, all Roman legions are pulled out of Britain • 455 – Rome breaks a treaty with the Vandals; Alaric orders the sack of Rome • 476 – Master of the Soldiers, Odacer, deposes the emperor, Romulus Augustulus • Considered by historians as the fall of the western (Roman) empire • Eastern empire (Byzantine) would continue on until 1453