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Lesson 17. Detectors. Introduction. When radiation interacts with matter, result is the production of energetic electrons. (Neutrons lead to secondary processes that involve charged species)
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Lesson 17 Detectors
Introduction • When radiation interacts with matter, result is the production of energetic electrons. (Neutrons lead to secondary processes that involve charged species) • Want to collect these electrons to determine the occurrence of radiation striking the detector, the energy of the radiation, and the time of arrival of the radiation.
Detector characteristics • Sensitivity of the detector • Energy Resolution of the detector • Time resolution of the detector or itgs pulse resolving time • Detector efficiency
Summary of detector types • Gas Ionization • Ionization in a Solid (Semiconductor detectors) • Solid Scintillators • Liquid Scintillators • Nuclear Emulsions
Detectors based on gas ionization • Ion chambers 35 eV/ion pair>105 ion pairs created. Collect this charge using a capacitor, V=Q/C NO AMPLIFICATION OF THE PRIMARY IONIZATION
Uses of Ion Chambers • High radiation fields (reactors) measuring output currents. • Need for exact measurement of ionization (health physics) • Tracking devices
Gas amplification • If the electric fields are strong enough, the ions can be accelerated and when they strike the gas molecules, they can cause further ionization.
Proportional counters • Gas amplification creates output pulse whose magnitude is linearly proportional to energy deposit in the gas. • Gas amplification factors are 103-104. • Will distinguish between alpha and beta radiation
Practical aspects gas flow typical gas: P10, 90% Ar, 10% methane Sensitive to ,, X-rays, charged particles Fast response, dead time ~ s
Geiger- Müller Counters • When the gas amplification factor reaches 108, the size of the output pulse is a constant, independent of the initial energy deposit. • In this region, the Geiger- Müller region, the detector behaves like a spark plug with a single large discharge. • Large dead times, 100-300µs, result • No information about the energy of the radiation is obtained or its time characteristics. • Need for quencher in counter gas, finite lifetime of detectors which are sealed tubes. • Simple cheap electronics
Semiconductor Radiation Detectors • “Solid state ionization chambers” • Most common semiconductor used is Si. One also uses Ge for detection of photons. • Need very pure materials--use tricks to achieve this
p-n junction Create a region around the p-n junction where there is no excess of either n or p carriers. This region is called the “depletion region”.
Advantages of Si detectors • Compact, ranges of charged particles are µ • Energy needed to create +- pair is 3.6 eV instead of 35eV. Superior resolution. • Pulse timing ~ 100ns.
Ge detectors • Ge is used in place of Si for detecting gamma rays. • Energy to create +- pair = 2.9 eV instead of 3.6 eV • Z=32 vs Z=14 • Downside, forbidden gap is 0.66eV, thermal excitation is possible, solve by cooling detector to LN2 temperatures. • Historical oddity: Ge(Li) vs Ge
Types of Si detectors • Surface barrier, PIN diodes, Si(Li) • Surface barrier construction
Details of SB detectors • Superior resolution • Can be made “ruggedized” or for low backgrounds • Used in particle telescopes, dE/dx, E stacks • Delicate and expensive
PIN diodes • Cheap • p-I-n sandwich • strip detectors
Si(Li) detectors • Ultra-pure region created by chemical compensation, i.e., drifting a Li layer into p type material. • Advantage= large depleted region (mm) • Used for -detection. • Advantages, compact, large stopping power (solid), superior resolution (1-2 keV) • Expensive • Cooled to reduce noise
Ge detectors • Detectors of choice for detecting -rays • Superior resolution
Scintillation detectors • Energy depositlightsignal • Mechanism (organic scintillators) Note that absorption and re-emission have different spectra
Organic scintillators • Types: solid, liquid (organic scintillator in organic liquid), solid solution(organic scintillator in plastic) • fast response (~ ns) • sensitive (used for) heavy charged particles and electrons. • made into various shapes and sizes
Liquid Scintillators • Dissolve radioactive material in the scintillator • Have primary fluor (PPO) and wave length shifter (POPOP)> • Used to count low energy • Quenching
Inorganic scintillators (NaI (Tl)) Emission of light by activator center
NaI(Tl) • Workhorse gamma ray detector • Usual size 3” x 3” • 230 ns decay time for light output • Other common inorganic scintillators are BaF2, BGO
Distribution functions Most general distribution describing radioactive decay is called the Binomial Distribution n=# trials, p is probability of success
Poisson distribution • If p small ( p <<1), approximate binomial distribution by Poisson distribution P(x) = (xm)x exp(-xm)/x! where xm = pn • Note that the Poisson distribution is asymmetric
Example of use of statistics • Consider data of Table 18.2 • mean = 1898 • standard deviation, , = 44.2 where For Poisson distribution
Interval distribution Counts occur in “bunches”!!
Table 18-3. Uncertainties for some common operationsOperation Answer UncertaintyAddition A+B (σA2+σB2)1/2Subtraction A-B (σA2+σB2)1/2Multiplication A*B A*B((σA/A)2+(σB/B)2)1/2Division A/B A/B((σA/A)2+(σB/B)2)1/2
Uncertainties for some common operationsOperation Answer UncertaintyAddition A+B (σA2+σB2)1/2Subtraction A-B (σA2+σB2)1/2Multiplication A*B A*B((σA/A)2+(σB/B)2)1/2Division A/B A/B((σA/A)2+(σB/B)2)1/2