Contrasting Water Quality and Health Issues in Rural and Urban Communities

1. Contrasting Water Quality and Health Issues in Rural and Urban Communities nacaa2007 Joan B. Rose Michigan State University rosejo@msu.edu

3. Recreational & Drinking Water Water Connection Between Human Health and the Environment WATER FOOD Oceans Lakes Produce Poultry Irrigation Fertilization Agricultural Runoff Rivers Fish Pork Streams Ground Water Beef HUMAN HEALTH Animal & Human Feces Immuno- compromised Handling Preparation Consumption Elderly Children Health Care

4. URBAN (point sources) Wastewater treatment systems with larger flows Combined Sewer Overflows Aging Infrastructure, spills Community Water Tourism focus at coastal areas RURAL (diffuse) Septic tanks; Smaller wastewater plants & lagoon systems Animal manure & Biosolids application Groundwater & Individual wells Less monitoring & less information on water quality Source of food supply Water in the Urban vs the Rural Areas

5. SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT ISSUES • New Rules: Ground water Rule, • Long-Term Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule • Watershed Protection. • Sensitive Populations. • Contaminant Candidate List.

6. CLEAN WATER ACT • Fishable/ Swimmable • Biological/chemical/Physical Integrity • NPDES Discharge permitting system (wastewater and stormwater) CSOs, SSOs • BEACH ACT • Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) • Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFO) • Water Quality Protection Plans

7. A few definitions… • Pathogen = microbial agent causing disease • Enteric pathogen = agent causing intestinal disease; EXCRETED IN THE FECES • Zoonotic pathogen = a pathogen of animals that can infect humans SLIDE PROVIDED BY DR. JEANETTE THURSTON, ARS, NEBRASKA

8. Pathogens of Concern Viruses Bacteria Parasites THE DISEASES: diarrhea, respiratory illness, liver damage, kidney failure, heart disease, cancer, nervous system disorders; birth defects, death.

9. E.coli • One measure of water quality is the numbers of the fecal indicator organism E.coli ,a harmless bacterium found in the gut of humans and animals including birds. • Presence indicates the possible presence of pathogens. • Pathogens cause disease (from water due to ingestion or inhalation) • Special types of E.coli are “true pathogens” like E.coli 0157H7

10. Sources of E.coli and Pathogens Waste water/Sewagetreatment Agricultural run-off Septic systems Animal farming operations Combined Sewer Overflow Wildlife

11. Water Sources That Can Be Threatened By Fecal-borne Pathogens SLIDE PROVIDED BY DR. JEANETTE THURSTON, ARS, NEBRASKA Recreational Irrigation Drinking Seafood

12. Manure-Borne Pathogens that May Threaten U.S. Water Supplies ProtozoanParasites Bacteria Zoonotic Pathogens Antibiotic Resistance Enteric Viruses? Other Pathogens SLIDE PROVIDED BY DR. JEANETTE THURSTON, ARS, NEBRASKA Microsporidia

13. Zoonotic Pathogens BACTERIA • Campylobacter • E.coli • Salmonella PARASITES • Cryptosporidium • Giardia

14. Life Cycle of Cryptosporidium Host ingests oocyst Obligate intracellular parasite Animal reservoir C. hominus restrictive to human to human transfer C. parvum

15. The Emergence of Cryptosporidium • As a pathogen • 1908 - 1st description of organism in mice • 1976 - 1st report of infection & illness in humans • As a waterborne pathogen • 1984 - 1st waterborne outbreak, Braun Station, TX, 47 cases; warning re: Cryptosporidium at WQTC • 1987 - Carrollton, GA waterborne outbreak, 13,000 cases • 1993 - Milwaukee, WI waterborne outbreak, >400,000 cases; AIDS mortality = ~70% • As a Foodborne Pathogen • 1993 - 1st foodborne outbreak, in apple cider

16. WATERBORNE OUTBREAKS IN THE U.S.

17. Recreational Outbreaks in Ambient Waters

18. Agricultural Environments SLIDE PROVIDED BY DR. JEANETTE THURSTON, ARS, NEBRASKA

19. Ground Water Environment Virus contamination of ground and surface water Ground water occurs in the rocks beneath us. The types of rocks determine how protected the water is from human activities. Images from USGS Circular 1139 --http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1139/index.html

20. E. Coli casts shadow over public beaches St. Clair, Sanilac monitor health threat

22. Groundwater Risks Lessons Learned Walkerton, Ontario Outbreak (occurred In small community Using Ground water). Source: Application of Animal Waste/Manure ? Monitoring and Disinfection not addressed. 2300 CASES 7 DEATHS 27 CASES of HUS 5 years later community still suffering.

24. FDA Home Page | CFSAN Home | Search/Subject Index | Q & A | Help • September 16, 2006; Updated October 20, 2006 • Nationwide E. Coli O157:H7 Outbreak: Questions & Answers • FDA and the State of California announced October 12 that the test results for certain samples collected during the field investigation of the outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 in spinach are positive for E. coli O157:H7. Specifically, samples of cattle feces on one of the implicated ranches tested positive based on matching genetic fingerprints for the same strain of E. coli O157:H7 that sickened 204 people.

25. 1. What do you think are the most significant challenges we are currently facing in regard to food safety/ and or water safety? 2.  What are the new tools and techniques that could assist us in meeting  these challenges? 3.  What should we be doing right now in regard to monitoring and reporting?

26. WATER QUALITY & HEALTH What do you think are the most significant challenges in regard to food safety/ and or water safety? There are numerous emerging pathogens and issues and there is a lack of scientific information regarding sources, occurrence, transport, and survival/persistence. Thus lack of scientific knowledge is a severe impediment to informed choices and management strategies. We should be monitoring and reporting water quality in a risk framework

27. Enteric Pathogens:Contributing Factors for Environmental Persistence and Transmission • High numbers shed in feces • Increased survival • Low infectious dose • Increased resistance to disinfection/treatment • Multiple routes of transmission • Cause Animal and human infections SLIDE PROVIDED BY DR. JEANETTE THURSTON, ARS, NEBRASKA

28. What are the new tools and techniques that could assist us in meeting  these challenges? • VIRUSES & PATHOGEN TESTING • INDICATORS & SOURCE TRACKING • TRACER STUDIES

29. What is PCR? • Enzymatic reaction that makes many copies of DNA from single molecule • 2n copies of DNA from single molecule where n = No. of cycles • So, 35 cycles of PCR would yield 235 copies of DNA

31. RESULTS in WASTEWATER Sample IFA Oocysts/100 L PCR Result Species/Genotype 1 4 8 - - 2 107 209 + C. parvum genotype 2 3 5 61 - - 4 5 10 - - 5 83 162 + C. parvum genotype 2 6 151 319 + C. parvum genotypes 1 and 2 7 26 55 - - 8 3 6 - - 9 2 8 - - 10 40 120 + C. parvum genotypes 1and 2 11 26 53 + C. parvum genotypes 1 and 2 12 26 104 + C. parvum genotype 2

32. Cryptosporidium in Michigan Waters • Red Cedar in E. Lansing • Levels 21.5 oocysts/100L         11.0 oocysts/100L         6.0 oocysts/100L • Level in Farm Ditches/Drain Fields • 3 to 5,990 oocysts/100L • 132 infectious oocysts/100L • Levels in the Grand River • 1 to 50 oocysts/100L

33. M-50 US 223 Adrian Wolf Creek at Forrister Hudson St. Joe Creek at Beecher M-34 Rice Lake Drain M-52 Stoney Creek at Seneca VHI Stormwater Bear Creek at Medina Black Creek at Crockett Bear Creek at Morse Culvert at Tamarack Hillsdale County Lanawee County Morenci Hillsdale and Lenawee Counties Crypto Sampling Locations

34. Crypto in Michigan Waters Cryptosporidium was found in 11 surface water sites near CAFO farms which may have been the source of the oocysts. The site with the highest detected level of Cryptosporidium was at the white tile that drains into Rice Lake Drain near the Haley Road crossing with levels as high as 5990 oocysts per 10L. Giardia was detected at 8 of the surface water sites. Viable and infectious oocysts were also detected. High levels of E.coli bacteria were reported as well. C. Andersonii & C. parvum were most frequently identified genetically, but C. hominus was also found.

35. Microbial Source Tracking • Tools are now available to determine the molecular fingerprint of the fecal pollution. • Health risks • Remediation • Prioritization • Responsibility

36. Microbial Source Tracking (MST) • Indicator bacteria doesn’t provide source of pollution • Track sources of fecal contamination in water • MST can be library dependent or library independent

37. Culture vs nonculture • Culture dependent methods target viable organisms only • Non- culture methods target both viable and non viable cells

38. Host specific • Host specific method is library independent • For Library-dependent, DNA libraries are built using isolates from animals & human sources in the area • Using these libraries to match to the unknown environmental sample • Host specific method requires nolibrary, the marker is specific to the host

39. Most Promising tools are microbial host-specific markers Proteobacteria • ESP in Enterococci For human sewage detection B. Adenoviruses, distinguishes Human from Cow C. Bacteroides Bacteria: human and cow systems being tested and a bird marker may be available soon

40. Tracer Study: impact of sewage release at the beach

41. Grand Haven Grand River Lake Michigan Grand Rapids Study Area

42. Materials and Methods • Injection of biological tracer(PRD-1) and chemical tracer (rhodamine wt dye) ~ 2 km upstream of USGS gauge in Grand Rapids, MI • 8 sampling points from 3 bridges downstream

43. PRD-1

44. Up to 2 days to reach the beach Viruses reduced 99.99% TRACER: Distance: 17 MILES Time: 16 hours Travel Speed: 1.06 miles per hour

45. SLIDE PROVIDED BY DR. JEANETTE THURSTON, ARS, NEBRASKA Aerosol Transport & Deposition Manure storage Direct Deposition Holding Pond Land Application Runoff Runoff Well head impacts Surface Water Groundwater

46. Application 0.5 to0.8 gallons Per sq feet Virus Tracer per sq ft 170 million

47. Preliminary data: occurrence of Tracer in the monitoring of the tile drain

48. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES RISK ASSESSMENT PARADIGM • HAZARD IDENTIFICATION Types of microorganisms and disease end-points • DOSE-RESPONSE Human feeding studies, clinical studies, less virulent microbes and health adults • EXPOSURE Monitoring data, indicators and modeling used to address exposure • RISK CHARACTERIZATION Magnitude of the risk, uncertainty and variability

49. PROBLEM FORMULATION ANALYSIS CHARACTERIZATION WATER quality Reporting Human & animal diseases. RISK CHARACTERIZATION RISK MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

50. RESEARCH NEEDS • HAZARD IDENTIFICATION Types of pathogens in various sources. Define manure as a beneficial product with targeted levels of pathogen reduction associated with processing of animal waste, verified through monitoring. • EXPOSURE Monitoring data, indicators and modeling used to address exposure, from farms to water ways, septic tank impacts and sewage spills and effluent discharges.