The Physical Setting

1. The Physical Setting Chemistry Jerry Deutsch

2. New York StateEducation DepartmentCore Curriculum http://www.emsc.nysed.gov/ciai/mst/pub/chemist.pdf

3. I. Atomic Concepts

4. The modern model of the atom has evolved over a long period of time through the work of many scientists. (3.1a) • Democritus – matter is made up of particles called atoms • Dalton – atoms of the same element are alike – solid indivisible spheres • Thomson – discovers electrons – plum pudding model • Rutherford – gold foil experiment – discovers heavy, + charge nucleus – mostly empty space • Bohr – orbital model of electrons

5. Regents Question: 08/02 #1 Subatomic particles can usually pass undeflected through an atom because the volume of an atom is composed of (1) an uncharged nucleus (2) largely empty space (3) neutrons (4) protons

6. Regents Question: 01/03 #62-64 One model of the atom states that atoms are tiny particles composed of a uniform mixture of positive and negative charges. Scientists conducted an experiment where alpha particles were aimed at a thin layer of gold atoms. Most of the alpha particles passed directly through the gold atoms. A few alpha particles were deflected from their straight-line paths. An illustration of the experiment is shown below.

7. Regents Question cont’d • Most of the alpha particles passed directly through the gold atoms undisturbed. What does this evidence suggest about the structure of the gold atoms? • A few of the alpha particles were deflected. What does this evidence suggest about the structure of the gold atoms? • How should the original model be revised based on the results of this experiment? Most of the atom is empty space. There is central + charge. The nucleus is +. The atom is not a uniform mixture of + and - charge. Positive charge is located in a heavy central mass.

8. Regents Question: 06/03 #67 • John Dalton was an English scientist who proposed that atoms were hard, indivisible spheres. In the modern model, the atom has a different internal structure. • Identify one experiment that led scientists to develop the modern model of the atom. Rutherford’s gold foil experiment

9. Regents Question cont’d • John Dalton was an English scientist who proposed that atoms were hard, indivisible spheres. In the modern model, the atom has a different internal structure… • Describe this experiment. • State one conclusion about the internal structure of the atom, based on this experiment. Rutherford shot alpha particles a piece of gold foil. Most of the alpha particles went through, some were deflected and some were reflected. Most of the atom is empty space.

10. Each atom has a nucleus, with an overall positive charge, surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons. (3.1b)

11. Subatomic particles contained in the nucleus include protons and neutrons. (3.1c) • Particles in the nucleus (protons and neutrons) are called nucleons • The mass of the atoms is concentrated in the nucleus • Electrons are not found in the nucleus, they orbit the nucleus. • The net charge of the nucleus is positive (+)

12. The proton is positively charged, and the neutron has no charge. The electron is negatively charged. (3.1d) Mass Charge

13. Regents Question: 01/03 #1 • Which statement best describes electrons? • (1) They are positive subatomic particles and are found in the nucleus. • (2) They are positive subatomic particles and are found surrounding the nucleus. • (3)They are negative subatomic particles and are found in the nucleus. • (4)They are negative subatomic particles and are found surrounding the nucleus.

14. Regents Question: 06/02 #58-60 • In the modern model of the atom, each atom is composed of three major subatomic (or fundamental) particles. • Name the subatomic particles contained in the nucleus of the atom. • State the charge associated with each type of subatomic particle contained in the nucleus of the atom. • What is the net charge of the nucleus? Proton and neutron Proton is positive and the neutron is neutral Positive

15. Regents Question: 06/03 #2 Which subatomic particle has no charge? (1) alpha particle (2) beta particle (3) Neutron (4) electron

16. Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges. The number of protons equals the number of electrons in an atom. (3.1e) # of protons = # of electrons Therefore, atoms are electrically neutral.

17. The mass of each proton and each neutron is approximately equal to one atomic mass unit. An electron is much less massive than a proton or a neutron. (3.1f) Mass Charge

18. The atomic number for an element cannot change but its mass number can. • Atomic Number • The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom • Determines which element • Mass Number • The number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) • If you don’t know the mass number you can round off the atomic mass for that element • # neutrons = mass # - atomic #

19. Regents Question: 06/02 #33 • The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom can be determined by • Adding the atomic number to the mass number • Subtracting the atomic number from the mass number • Adding the mass number to the atomic mass • Subtracting the mass number from the atomic number

20. Regents Question: 06/03 #1 The atomic number of an atom is always equal to the number of its (1) protons, only (2) neutrons, only (3) protons plus neutrons (4) protons plus electrons

21. The mass number (42) is not necessary to find the number of protons. Regents Question: 08/02 #4 What is the total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of potassium-42? (1) 15 (2) 19 (3) 39 (4) 42

22. Regents Question: 06/03 #36 The nucleus of an atom of K-42 contains (1) 19 protons and 23 neutrons (2) 19 protons and 42 neutrons (3) 20 protons and 19 neutrons (4) 23 protons and 19 neutrons

23. In the wave-mechanical model (electron cloud model), the electrons are in orbitals, which are defined as the regions of the most probable electron location (ground state). (3.1h) An orbital is the area of highest probability of finding an electron.

24. Regents Question: 06/03 # 5 The region that is the most probable location of an electron in an atom is (1) the nucleus (2) an orbital (3) the excited state (4) an ion

25. Regents Question: 06/02 #2 • The modern model of the atom shows that electrons are • orbiting the nucleus in fixed paths • found in regions called orbitals • combined with neutrons in the nucleus • located in a solid sphere covering the nucleus

26. Each electron in an atom has its own distinct amount of energy. (3.1i) When electrons are in their lowest energy state, it is called the ground state The ground state for Na is 2-8-1

27. Energy level (n) Maximum number of electrons (2n2) 1 2 2 8 3 18 4 32 The maximum number of electrons in a principal energy level (shell) is 2n2.

28. Electron Configuration tells us how many electrons in each principal energy level (shell). • Atomic Number = 7 • Mass Number = 14 • 7 protons • 7 neutrons • 7 electrons • Electron configuration: 2-5

29. The electron configuration for the ground state of an atom is given on the Periodic Table of the Elements. Electron Configuration

30. Regents Question: 06/02 #1 • What is the electron configuration of a sulfur atom in the ground state? • 2-4 • 2-6 • 2-8-4 • 2-8-6 Look at the Periodic Table of the Elements If you do not know the symbol for sulfur, check Table S

31. When an electron in an atom gains a specific amount of energy, the electron is at a higher energy state (excited state). (3.1j) Possible excited states for Na are: 2-7-2 1-8-2

32. When an electron returns from a higher energy state to a lower energy state, a specific amount of energy is emitted. This emitted energy can be used to identify an element. (3.1k) Emission Spectrum

33. Regents Question: 01/03 # 2 • During a flame test, ions of a specific metal are heated in the flam of a gas burner. A characteristic color of light was emitted by these ions in the flame when the electrons • Gain energy as they return to lower energy levels • Gain energy as they move to higher energy levels • Emit energy as they return to lower energy levels • Emit energy as they move to higher energy levels

34. Regents Question: 06/03 # 3 • When the electrons of an excited atom return to a lower energy state, the energy emitted can result in the production of • alpha particles • (2) Isotopes • (3) protons • (4) spectra

35. Regents Question: 06/03 #51-52 • Base your answers to the next two questions on the electron configuration table shown below. • What is the total number of valence electrons in an atom of electron configuration X? • Which electron configuration represents the excited state of a calcium atom? • Element Electron Configuration • X 2-8-2Y 2-8-8-2Z 2-8-7-3 2 2-8-7-3

36. The outermost electrons in an atom are called the valence electrons. In general, the number of valence electrons affects the chemical properties of an element. (3.1l) • The ground state for Na is 2-8-1 • The valence shell is the third shell. • The valence shell contains 1 electron.

37. Regents Question: 08/02 #2 • What is the total number of electrons in the • valence shell of an atom of aluminum in the • ground state? • 8 • 2 • 3 • (4) 10

38. Regents Question: 06/02 #31 • In which shell are the valence electrons of the elements in Period 2 found? • 1 • 2 • 3 • 4

39. Atoms of an element that contain the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes of that element. (3.1m) Isotopes of Hydrogen 1H – protium 1 proton 0 neutron 2H – deuterium 1 proton 1 neutron 3H – tritium 1 proton 2 neutrons

40. Regents Question: 01/03 #9 • An atom of carbon-12 and an atom of carbon-14 differ in • Atomic number • Atomic mass • Nuclear charge • Number of electrons Carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes.

41. Regents Question: 06/02 #4 • All the isotopes of a given atom have • the same mass number and same atomic number • the same mass number but different atomic numbers • different mass numbers but the same atomic number • different mass numbers and different atomic number

42. Regents Question: 06/02 #9 • Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons are classified as • Charged atoms • Charged nuclei • Isomers • Isotopes

43. Isotope Mass Abundance Calculation 12C 12 98.89% 12 x .9889 = 11.87 13C 13 1.108% 13 x 0.01108 = 0.1440 Atomic Mass (weighted average) 12.01 amu The average atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the masses of its naturally occurring isotopes. (3.1n)

44. Regents Question: 06/03 # 4 The atomic mass of an element is calculated using the (1) atomic number and the ratios of its naturally occurring isotopes (2) atomic number and the half-lives of each of its isotopes (3) masses and the ratios of its naturally occurring isotopes (4) masses and the half-lives of each of its isotopes

45. Regents Question: 01/03 #36 • Hydrogen has three isotopes with mass numbers of 1, 2, and 3 and has an average atomic mass of 1.00794 amu. This information indicates that • Equal number of each isotope are present • More isotopes have an atomic mass of 2 or 3 than 1 • More isotopes have an atomic mass of 1 rather than 2 of 3 • Isotopes have only an atomic mass of 1

46. Look for the masses on the periodic table of the elements. Regents Question: 01/03 #3 • In which list are the elements arranged in order of increasing atomic mass? • Cl, K, Ar • Fe, Co, Ni • Te, I Xe • Ne, F, Na