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Islamic Religion and Arab Culture. (Conflict and Reinforcement). The Middle East. Muslim Distribution. Muslim World 2000. “Allah” The one God. For believing Muslims this is the name of the one God. For them there is no other.
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Islamic Religion and Arab Culture (Conflict and Reinforcement)
“Allah”The one God For believing Muslims this is the name of the one God. For them there is no other. “Allah” was originally the name of an astral god worshipped by the pagan Arabs before Islam. The “Kaaba” in Mecca is survival of this earlier form of religion. Islam is a most strictly monotheistic faith.
The Muslim View • There is but one God. (Allah) • Any other belief is pagan. • Judaism and Christianity are the result of earlier revelations by the one God. • They are Religion 1.0 and Religion 2.0. • Islam (Submission) is Religion 3.0 • Islam results from direct revelation to the Prophet Muhammad.
On Discussing Religion • Other peoples’ views on religion must be respected whether or not one shares them. • Religion is about faith, not reason. • Debating the “truth” of religion is for theologians, not soldiers or other government people. • Never challenge a Muslim over the “value” of his religion or yours. • Nevertheless, an objective view of the subject is necessary.
Origins of Islam(The Hydraulic Theory) • Rainfall in the Arabian Peninsula is both meager and uneven. • An irregular cycle of plentiful rainfall and severe drought is unending. • Plenty of rain means more food, means more people. • Less rain means less food means starve or move. • Time of the Islamic revelation and its establishment as a community corresponds to a profound drought. • Invasion of Syria, Iraq and Egypt followed.
World War in the 7th Century A.D. • Sassanian Persia and Byzantine Rome were the great powers. • In the M.E. there were independent Jewish and Christian Arab states. • The two great powers fought a ten year war to the death, to exhaustion. (kinetic exhaustion?) • Islam expanded into a vacuum.
Islam and Arianism • The Prophet Muhammad was exposed to many forms of Judaism and Christianity in his travels. • Early Christian “fathers” in the lands captured by the Muslims thought Islam was just another form of Christianity. • “Arian” Christianity was widespread in Arabia. It held that Jesus was a great prophet but not God. This is like Islam.
A World Theocratic State • The Umma. • Islam is a “seamless garment.” • Administered first from Damascus, then from Baghdad. • Splintered early into “de facto” separate regions ruled by mercenary soldiers. • Has not been united for a thousand years.
Many forms of Islam - 1 • Sunni – accepts the authority of Quran, and the early example (Sunna) of Islamic community and majority community leaders. • Shia – Represents the interests of the “underclass.” Probably developed as a result of Arab discrimination against the conquered. Identity “pinned” to the rights of the prophets family.
Many Forms of Islam - 2 • Shia • Twelvers. Prevalent in Iraq and south Lebanon. • Seveners. Exist mainly in India and Pakistan. • Fivers. Only in Yemen. Nearest Shia sect to Sunnis in law. Follow ancient rationalist school of law.
Basic Facts of Sunni and Shia Islam • No “ordained” clergy. Ulema are scholars and officials, not priests. • No Hierarchy. • No sacraments. No baptism. Affirmation of Islam is substitute. Marriage is a religiously certified contract.
Predominate forms of Islam are law driven • Man is insignificant. God is everything. Man’s function is to obey God. • Therefore, knowing the will of God as expressed in religious law is all important. • Determining accepted law and its application is the principal function of Ulema (clerics)
The “Roots” of the law -1(Usul Fiqh) • Quran – The uncreated word of God. It was not written by man (Muslim understanding). It descended from heaven and has existed in this form and words for all eternity. • Hadith – Various authorized collection of records of the practice of Muhammad and the early Muslim community. The Shia and Sunni have different collections.
The “Roots” of the law - 2 • Qiyas – analogy from case law. • Ijma’ – Because Islam has no “chain of command,” consensus of Scholars or any group of Muslims effectively determines what law is accepted. • Ijtihad – individual striving for understanding of God’s will based on Quran, etc. The Shia believe this is still possible but the Sunni have not for a thousand years.
Shia and Sunni beliefs on Ijtihad • The Twelver Shia believe that Ijtihad is still possible and that certain great scholars have this ability. They are certified by the “Howza.” A “university” of scholars. There are basically two, one in Iran and the other in Iraq. The two are intimately connected. • The Sunni think this path to law is now blocked, but recent pressure has caused them to at least reconsider the subject.
Schools of Sunni Law • Hanbali – In use only in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Relies only on Quran and Hadith for making judgments of law. Forms the background of Wahhabism, takfiri jihadism and Al-Qa’ida. • Hanafi – This was the official “school” of law of the Ottoman Empire and for that reason is widely accepted. • Shafa’i – The oldest and most widely accepted school. • Maliki – Prevalent in western north Africa.
Shia Law • More organizationally structured than Sunni law and based on the ijma’ (consensus) of the great mujtahids of Shia Islam. They are also called ayatollahs. • The consensus is formed in the Howza of a great center of learning or in the following of a single man. • Such a man is called a “marja at-taqliid” or “reference point for emulation.” • Such a man’s opinions have no authority after his death.
Ijma’ and Group Consensus • Because of the lack of hierarchy, group identity within Islam and belief in what Islam is altogether dependent on the group’s acceptance of the leader or the group’s teaching. • “Official” Islamic authorities do not accept this bit it is effectively the truth.
“Levels” in Islam • Like all great religions Islam exists at different levels of sophistication. • At the top, men like Al-Ghazali, great philosophers ranking with Aristotle and Plato. • At the bottom, a mass of folk religion and superstition filled with demons, genies and charms.
The Five Pillars • Witness – “There is no God, but God and Muhammad is the messenger of God.” • Pilgrimage – To Mecca at least once in a lifetime during “Dhu al-Hajj.” • Prayer – Five times a day, preferably in formation. • Alms – “Zakat” Tithing, preferably to the poor. • Fasting- in Ramadan unless one is traveling or ill.
The Mahdi • Both Shia and Sunni Islam believe in the existence of a “Mahdi” or savior. This belief is probably based on earlier Jewish and Christian beliefs. • In the case of the Shia, the belief is that the Mahdi is the same person as the “hidden” 12th Imam of the Twelver Shia community. According to their belief this descendant of Muhammad awaits the time of final judgment when he will come with Jesus to judge all.
The Sunni Mahdi The Sunni Mahdi is different. He Is an extraordinary man who has come into the world as a “renewer of religion (mujaddid al-din). He may be of any profession, soldier, scholar, etc. There have been many claimants to the title.
The Sufis - 1 • “Orthodox” Islam is a matter of law and obedience to God’s law. • This is a view of man’s relationship to God which is not enough for many. • In response many Muslims have individually or in groups believed that they could know God’s love personally. • They are called Sufis and their mysticism is related to that of Jews and Christians.
The Sufis - 2 • In the early days of Islam these people were persecuted terribly for what was seen to be blasphemy. • Many were burned or crucified for their “sin.” • After a few hundred years, a great scholar (alim) appeared who reconciled mainstream Islam to the Sufis by persuading them to accept the idea that they did not actually see God, but, instead only his image. (Al-Ghazali) This saved them and they are widely accepted today. • There are many Sufi “orders,” the members of which are often professional people.
Popular Religion • The high culture of Islam is only part of the story. • “Peoples’ Religion” is the rest of the story. • Village religion is filled with belief in saints, love of God as creator and tribal custom as modifying Islam. • In Iraq, village religion mixes strongly with Sufi empathic feeling and Sharia law to make a “brew” that is inherently hostile to Al-Qa’ida’s constipated view of Islam.
Culture • Not a “soft”discipline”, not about cute folkways. • The totality of group custom, tradition and informal “law.” • Often expressed informally by local and oral passage. • Often in conflict with “High Culture.”
Alien Social Science Models • Based on assumptions of causes of human behavior imported from the West. • Usually contain an economic determinist (marxist) bias. • Inadequate to explain personal behaviors of religious zealots. • Inadequate to explain soldiers anywhere.
Emic vs. Etic • Emic knowledge is that which you “learn” from what people tell you about themselves or others. • Etic knowledge is what you decide is true about the same people after you have evaluated all available data, including the Emic knowledge. • Never! Never! Accept what people tell you about themselves at face value. • People have many reasons for telling you things that are not accurate.
Culture of Poverty in the M.E. • Low Mean Rainfall as previously explained. • Up until now this has meant permanently inadequate arable land available. • Permeating belief in the “limited good.” • Tendency toward belief that life is transactional and that all deals are “zero sum.”
Effect of “Zero Sum” Idea • Difficulty in negotiating with “win-win” outcome as goal. • West (U.S.) typically seeks negotiated outcomes in which both sides win. (Dialectic) • Easterners know we expect this and tell us what we want to hear. • In the East, negotiations, typically are about graceful surrender of the weaker.
Scarcity Model Applicability • Inside-Outside identity applies throughout the region. “huawahid min-na” (He is one of us) • Tribal, family or other ethnic identity competes with or complements religion. • “Zero Sum Game” mentality is applied in personal life, business, government. • Many understand our way, but not ready to accept it “inside.”
Segmentary Lineage Systems • People imagine themselves to be related by blood. (sometimes they are) • Necessary to form self-defense alliances among tribes, families, villages, etc. • Begins in pastoral situation. Persists for a long time in towns. • Layers of: family, extended family, clan, tribe, confederation. “Khums.”
Custom and Culture • ‘Urf. The totality of tribal customary law as conceived and accepted by a particular group. Sometimes accepted by ‘Ulema, sometimes not. • ‘Aada. Literally that which is accepted as daily practice by a group, • Taqliid. Tradition.
Compromise Not Easy • System biased against it. One who compromises feels like a “loser.” • Instinct is to “outplay” interlocutor. • Still possible even if as last resort. • Requires consensus (ijma’) of group involved. • Went wrong at CD 2. • Evolution of compromise better than spectacular.
Their Own Culture is Still Strong • Colonialists and Others have tried hard to “globalize” the M.E. • So far, not a lot of success, maybe with time. • Exposure to world media will make long term changes in attitudes.
Big News People in the Middle East do not want to be“ like us.” They want a good life. They want the “goodies,” but not the “baggage” of our culture. Typically They value unity, not individuality. They value family and tribal loyalty. Not some other set of values. It is not true that inside every Iraqi there is an American who wants to “get out.”
Finis (The End)
