Early Native America

1. Early Native America The 250

2. Ancient Americas….prior to 1550… • Art of the Indigenous Americas is among the world’s oldest artistic traditions. While its roots lie in northern Asia, it developed independently between c. 10,000 B.C.E. and 1492 C.E., which marked the beginning of the European invasions. Regions and cultures are referred to as the Indigenous Americas to signal the priority of First Nations cultural traditions over those of the colonizing and migrant peoples that have progressively taken over the American continents for the last 500 years

3. 3 geographical areas…. • Native North America • Central Mesoamerica • Andean South America

4. Traditions…. • Artistic traditions of the indigenous Americas exhibit overarching traits: content that emphasizes unity with the natural world and a five-direction (North, South, East, West, Center) cosmic geometry; spirituality based in visionary shamanism; high value placed on animal-based media, such as featherwork, bone carving, and hide painting; incorporation of trade materials (e.g., greenstones such as turquoise and jadeite, shells such as the spiny oyster, and in the case of Native North America, imported beads, machine-made cloth…ect

5. Style…. • stylistic focus on the essence rather than the appearance of subjects; and creation of aesthetic objects that have a strong functional aspect, reference, or utility (e.g., vessels, grinding platforms, and pipes). What is called “art” is considered to have, contain, and/or transfer life force rather than simply represent an image. Likewise, art is considered participatory and active, rather than simply made for passive viewing.

6. MESOAMERICA • General cultural similarities of ancient Mesoamerica include similar calendars, pyramidal stepped structures, sites and buildings oriented in relation to sacred mountains and celestial phenomena, and highly valued green materials, such as jadeite and quetzal feathers. • Three major distinct cultures and styles of Ancient Mesoamerica (Middle America) were the Olmec, Maya, and Mexica (aka Aztec — the empire was dominated by the Mexica ethnic group).

7. MESOAMERICA • Mesoamerican pyramids began as early earthworks, changed to nine-level structures with single temples, and then later became structures with twin temples. Sacred sites were renovated and enlarged repeatedly over the centuries, resulting in acropoli and massive temples. Architecture was mainly stone post-and-lintel, often faced with relief sculpture and painted bright colors, emphasizing large masses that sculpt outdoor space. Plazas were typical for large ritual gatherings. Elaborate burials and other underground installations to honor the role of the Underworld were also found.

8. Documentary Evidence • Spanish chronicles by invaders, friars, and colonists provide some information about monuments and artistic practices of the last independent indigenous peoples, such as the Inka, Mexica (known as Aztecs), and Puebloans; these sources can be cautiously applied to earlier cultures’ basic values and approaches. Hieroglyphs of the Mayas and Mexica illuminate text and image, historical, and artistic elements for those cultures. Ethnographic analogy highlights basic cultural continuities so that present traditional practices, myths, and religious beliefs may illuminate past artistic materials, creative processes, and iconography.

9. Yaxchilán. Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 C.E. Limestone (architecturalcomplex). (3 images)

10. Lintel 25 Structure 23 • Mesoamerican sculptural and two-dimensional art tended toward the figural, particularly in glorification of specific rulers. Mythical events were also depicted in a realistic, figural mode. Despite the naturalistic styles and anthropomorphic interpretations of subject matter, shamanic transformation, visions, and depiction of other cosmic realms figure prominently in Mesoamerican art.

11. This particular lintel (referred to by current day archaeologists as lintel 25) was located above the central doorway of a palace structure (structure 23) in Yaxchilán. An inscription on the lintel reads October 20, 681, the date of Lord Shield Jaguar II’s accession to throne as documented in other monuments. It is believed that creation of the lintel, as well as the ritual portrayed in its carving, were associated with this event.

12. visionary shamanism • The image, carved in relief on the limestone lintel, depicts Lady K’ab’alXook, wife of Shield Jaguar. Lady Xook performs a bloodletting ritual that has manifested a vision of a serpent. From the mouth of the serpent, a warrior, carrying a shield and spear, emerges. Scholars have debated the identity of this figure. Some argue that it represents Shield Jaguar, others that it is Lady K’abalXook herself in another form.

13. visionary shamanism • Bloodletting was a central part of Maya life from the Late Preclassic period (400 BCE–250 CE) onward and was especially critical to rituals of kingship. According to Maya belief, when a member of the royal family sheds his or her blood, a portal to the Otherworld was opened through which gods and spirits might pass into this world. The image of the “Vision Serpent” gives visual form to the communion between worlds. If it is the Vision Serpent that we see in lintel 25, the figure emerging from the creature’s open maw may be that of a royal ancestor. Whatever the case, by showing the serpent manifest, the image attests to the royal authority of Lady Xook, and by extension, Shield Jaguar.

14. Lintel 24 Structure 23 Please discuss stylistic conventions that are present In both lintels we have studied from this site. Additionally, address the differences in content and Iconography with a focus on this lentil as compared to Lintel 25. What do both lintels tell us about the way power and Belief are intertwined in Mayan culture? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H5ppfC6y-5s

15. The Central Andes • The ancient Central Andes comprised present-day southern Ecuador, Peru, western Bolivia, and northern Chile. General cultural similarities across the Andes include an emphasis on surviving and interacting with the challenging environments, reciprocity and cyclicality (rather than individualism), and reverence for the animal and plant worlds as part of the practice of shamanistic religion.

16. The Andes • Similarities within Central Andean cultures can be traced to the influence of three significantly distinct ecosystems in close proximity: the dominant Andes mountains, a narrow desert coast, and the planet’s largest rain forest, the Amazon. These environments necessarily play a central role in art, influencing the materials (especially the prominence of camelid fiber and cotton textiles), political systems (coastal diversity, highland impulses toward unification), and overall values such as reciprocity, asymmetrical dualism, and travel across long distances.

17. Andean art tends to explore the terrestrial (e.g., animal and plant imagery, mountain veneration, sculpting of nature itself, and organic integration of architecture with the environment). It also concerns the nonterrestrial via abstraction and orientation toward the afterlife and the other realms of the cosmos. Peoples of the Andes practiced the world’s earliest and most persistent artificial mummification (in many forms, from 5500 B.C.E. onward), and almost all art became grave goods for use in the afterlife. Shamanic visionary experience was a strong theme, especially featuring humans transforming into animal selves.

18. Chavín de Huántar. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavín. 900–200 B.C.E. Stone (architectural complex); granite (Lanzón and sculpture); hammered gold alloy (jewelry). (4 images)

19. Lanzón and sculpture

20. Two key elements characterize the Lanzón deity: it is a mixture of human and animal features, and the representation favors a complex and visually confusing style. The fangs and talons most likely indicate associations with the jaguar and the caiman—apex predators from the jungle lowlands that are seen elsewhere in Chavín art and in Andean iconography. The eyebrows and hair of the figure have been rendered as snakes, making them read as both bodily features and animals.

21. Further visual complexities emerge in the animal heads that decorate the bottom of the figure’s tunic, where two heads share a single fanged mouth. This technique, where two images share parts or outlines, is called contour rivalry, and in Chavín art it creates a visually complex style that is deliberately confusing, creating a barrier between believers who can see its true form and those outside the cult who cannot. While the Lanzón itself was hidden deep in the temple and probably only seen by priests, the same iconography and contour rivalry was used in Chavín art on the outside of the temple and in portable wares that have been found throughout Peru

22. Nose Ornament, c. 500-200 B.C.E., Peru, North Highlands, Chavín de Huántar, hammered and cut gold, 2.3 cm high(Cleveland Museum of Art The two serpent heads flank right and left, with the same upward-looking eyes as the Lanzón. The swirling forms beneath them also evoke the sculpture’s eye shape. An ornament like this would have been worn by an elite person to show not only their wealth and power but their allegiance to the Chavínreligion….. This particular piece was formed by hammering and cutting the gold, but Andean artists would develop other forming techniques over time.

23. 1. What are some stylistic similarities?2. What are some differences?3. What are some similarities/differences in content?4. What does each piece reflect about belief systems?

24. Characteristics of Native American art…. • Different regions of Native America have broadly similar styles of art, allowing grouping into Arctic*, Northwest Coast, Southwest, Plains, and Eastern Woodlands, among others. Geometric patterning, figures (often mythic or shamanic), and animals (e.g., snakes, birds, bison, and horses) are often seen. The various Native American groups may be seen to share larger ideas of harmony with nature, oneness with animals, respect for elders, community cohesion, dream guidance, shamanic leadership, and participation in large rituals (such as potlatches and sun dances).

25. Documentary Evidence • Sources of information for Native North American art include archaeological excavations for precontact and colonial cultures, written ethnohistoric documents, tribal history (oral and written), modern artists’ accounts and interviews, and museum records. Colonial and modern mistreatment of American Indians means that historical information sources may be highly contested by American Indians. Divergent stories depend on whether native or white sources are used.

26. Mesa Verde cliff dwellings. Montezuma County, Colorado. Ancestral Puebloan (Anasazi). 450–1300 C.E. Sandstone.

27. Mesa Verde • The largest of all the cliff dwellings, Cliff Palace, has about 150 rooms and more than 20 circular rooms. Due to its location, it was well protected from the elements. The buildings originally ranged from one to four stories, and some hit the natural stone ceiling. To build these structures, people used stone and mud mortar, along with wooden beams adapted to the natural clefts in the cliff face. This building technique was a shift from structures built prior to 1000 CE in the Mesa Verde area, which had been made primarily of adobe, a type of brick made of clay, sand and straw or sticks. These stone and mortar buildings, along with the decorative elements and objects found inside them, provide important insights into the lives of the Ancestral Puebloan people during the thirteenth century.

28. Mesa Verde • At sites like Cliff Palace, families lived in architectural units, organized around kivas, circular, subterranean rooms. A kiva typically had a wood-beamed roof held up by six engaged support columns made of masonry above a shelf-like banquette. Other typical features of a kiva included a fire pit or hearth, a ventilation shaft, a deflector (low wall designed prevent air drawn from the ventilation shaft from reaching the fire directly), and a sipapu (a small hole in the floor that is ceremonial in purpose). They developed from the pithouse, also a circular, subterranean room used as a living space.

29. Great Serpent Mound • The Great Serpent Mound measures approximately 1,300 feet in length and ranges from one to three feet in height. The complex mound is both architectural and sculptural and was erected by settled peoples who cultivated maize, beans and squash and who maintained a stratified society with an organized labor force, but left no written records.

30. Great Serpent Mound. Adams County, southern Ohio. Mississippian (Eastern Woodlands). c. 1070 C.E. Earthwork/effigy mound. • The Great Serpent Mound in rural, southwestern Ohio is the largest serpent effigy in the world. Numerous mounds were made by the ancient Native American cultures that flourished along the fertile valleys of the Mississippi, Ohio, Illinois, and Missouri Rivers a thousand years ago, though many were destroyed as farms spread across this region during the modern era.

31. The serpent is slightly crescent-shaped and oriented such that the head is at the east and the tail at the west, with seven winding coils in between. The shape of the head perhaps invites the most speculation. Whereas some scholars read the oval shape as an enlarged eye, others see a hollow egg or even a frog about to be swallowed by wide, open jaws. But perhaps that lower jaw is an indication of appendages, such as small arms that might imply the creature is a lizard rather than a snake. Many native cultures in both North and Central America attributed supernatural powers to snakes or reptiles and included them in their spiritual practices. The native peoples of the Middle Ohio Valley in particular frequently created snake-shapes out of copper sheets.

32. Great Serpent Mound • The mound conforms to the natural topography of the site, which is a high plateau overlooking Ohio Brush Creek. In fact, the head of the creature approaches a steep, natural cliff above the creek. The unique geologic formations suggest that a meteor struck the site approximately 250-300 million years ago, causing folded bedrock underneath the mound.  

33. Great Serpent Mound • Aspects of both the zoomorphic form and the unusual site have associations with astronomy worthy of our consideration. The head of the serpent aligns with the summer solstice sunset, and the tail points to the winter solstice sunrise. Could this mound have been used to mark time or seasons, perhaps indicating when to plant or harvest? Likewise, it has been suggested that the curves in the body of the snake parallel lunar phases, or alternatively align with the two solstices and two equinoxes. 

34. Great Serpent Mound • Some have interpreted the egg or eye shape at the head to be a representation of the sun. Perhaps even the swallowing of the sun shape could document a solar eclipse. Another theory is that the shape of the serpent imitates the constellation Draco, with the Pole Star matching the placement of the first curve in the snake’s torso from the head. An alignment with the Pole Star may indicate that the mound was used to determine true north and thus served as a kind of compass. • Of note also is the fact that Halley’s Comet appeared in 1066, although the tail of the comet is characteristically straight rather than curved. Perhaps the mound served in part to mark this astronomical event or a similar phenomenon, such as light from a supernova. In a more comprehensive view, the serpent mount may represent a conglomerate of all celestial knowledge known by these native peoples in a single image.

35. The mound contains no artifacts, and both the Fort Ancient and Adena groups typically buried objects inside their mounds. Although there are no graves found inside the Great Serpent Mound, there are burials found nearby, but none of them are the kinds of burials typical for the Fort Ancient culture and are more closely associated with Adena burial practices. Archaeological evidence does not support a burial purpose for the Great Serpent Mound. • Determining exactly which culture designed and built the effigy mound, and when, is a matter of ongoing inquiry. A broad answer may lie in viewing the work as being designed, built, and/or refurbished over an extended period of time by several indigenous groups. The leading theory is that the Fort Ancient Culture (1000-1650 C.E.) is principally responsible for the mound, having erected it in c. 1070 C.E. This mound-building society lived in the Ohio Valley and was influenced by the contemporary Mississippian culture (700-1550), whose urban center was located at Cahokia in Illinois. The rattlesnake was a common theme among the Mississippian culture, and thus it is possible that the Fort Ancient Culture appropriated this symbol from them (although there is no clear reference to a rattle to identify the species as such).