LOCOMOTION AND TRANSPORT

1. LOCOMOTION AND TRANSPORT

2. CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2

4. LEARNING OUTCOMES • To explain the necessity for support and locomotion in humans and animals, • To describe problems that could be faced by humans and animals in support and locomotion, • To explain how problems in support and locomotion are overcome in humans and animals, • To name the bones that make up the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton of the human body

5. The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Animals WHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALS NEED SUPPORT? • To find the food • To find partner for mating • To protect/escape from their predator • To shelter from bad environment

6. The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Animals • Without support, animals & humans would not be able to maintain their body shape  their body collapse under the weight of their own tissues. • Support are provided by some form of skeleton. • Hydrostatic skeleton • Exoskeleton • endoskeleton

7. Support are provided by some form of skeleton: • Hydrostatic skeleton • Exoskeleton • Endoskeleton

8. HYDROSTATIC SKELETON • A fluid-filled internal body cavity in which the fluid is held under pressure . This also can be usedd to maintan the body shape & provide support for internal organ • The cavity is surrounded by muscles arranged in layers. • The body shape of the animal changes as these muscles contract & relax.

9. The animals are soft & flexible, the hydrostatic fluid does protect body parts by acting as a shock absorber. • Examples : earthworm, jellyfish, leech & caterpillar.

11. EXOSKELETON • A rigid outer covering usually made up of protein, chitins &/@ calcium salt. • Insects – the cuticle (covered with wax to prevent water loss from the body), cover the body’s surface. • The exoskeleton is jointed / hinged = certain points of the skeleton are flexible & can bend  enabling the movement.

12. Exoskeleton restrict the growth of animals  the exoskeleton must be shed from time to time in order for the animal to grow. (ecdysis) • Also found in the shells of molluscs & the bony plates of tortoises. • Examples : insects, crabs, lobsters, tortoise

14. ENDOSKELETON • Found in the bodies of all vertebrates including fish, amphibians & birds. • Consist of hard skeleton of bones & cartilage found inside the body – made up of calcium & phosphate. • Works with the muscular system to perform movement & locomotion. It support the body & protects the organs.

16. The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Animals • The functions of skeleton : • Provide shape & support • Enables movement (locomotion) • Protects internal organs • Stores calcium & phosphate ions • Produces blood cells • A firm base for the attachment of muscles

17. The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Animals Problems that could be faced by humans and animals in support and locomotion, • gravitational force, friction & resistance when moving around • Aspect need to be considered when describing the locomotion of an animal :- • Stability – when it moves, it is temporarily unstable, but its stability will be restored when it stops. • Support – must have enough support from its body’s skeleton • Propulsion – must be propelled in order to move

18. HOW TO OVERCOME THE PROBLEMS? • RESISTANCE & FRICTION – by streamlining their bodies. • GRAVITATIONAL FORCE – most animals have their own supporting structures (fins – fishes, wings – birds & strong limbs – tetrapods & humans)  provide the propulsive force to overcome the problem

19. The skeletal system together with its muscles are designed specially to overcome the problems associated with support & locomotion of humans & animals. • To initiate locomotion, the force required is generated by contraction of muscles, whereas the movement is transmitted by the skeleton.

20. THE HUMAN SKELETON SYSTEM

22. THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM • The adult human skeleton consist of 206 bones. • Divided into two main parts : the axial skeleton & the appendicular skeleton. • The axial skeleton : made up of the bones that form the vertical axis of the body. • It supports & protects the organs of the head, neck & trunk. (skull, vertebral column, rib cage)

23. The appendicular skeleton : made up of the bones that are attached to the axial skeleton. • Include bones of the limbs, the pectoral girdle & the pelvic girdle.

24. FUNCTION OF THE SKELETON • PROTECTION – the skull protects the brain, the vertebral column protects the spinal cord & the rib cage protects internal organs such as the heart. • SUPPORT – act as a framework to support the soft body parts, to maintain the upright position & to keep the body stable.

25. FUNCTION OF THE SKELETON • MOVEMENT – bones interact with the skeletal muscle. • BLOOD CELL FORMATION – most of the blood cells are formed in the bone marrow of the long bones. • MINERAL STORAGE – bones act as a reservoir for calcium & phosphorus.

26. SKELETAL SYSTEM

27. THE AXIAL SKELETON

28. THE SKULL • Made up of 8 cranial bones & 14 facial bones including the upper jaw & the lower jaw. • The facial bones also provide support & protect the entrances to the respiratory system.

29. SKULL

30. VERTEBRAL COLUMN • Known as the spine/ backbone. • Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic girdle. • Made up of 33 vertebrae separated from each other by discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs) which absorb shocks & serve as flex point. • This S-shaped column supports & balances the body in a vertical plane & protects the spinal cord, supports the skull & provides a base for the attachment of muscles to the back.

31. VERTEBRAL COLUMN • The vertebrae differ in structure & function in different regions of the vertebral column. • A vertebra typically consists of a main body (the centrum), a neural arch & transverse processes.

32. VERTEBRAL COLUMN

33. VERTEBRAL COLUMN

34. TYPES OF VERTEBRAE

35. CERVICAL VERTEBRA

38. THORACIC VERTEBRA

39. THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)

41. LUMBAR VERTEBRA

42. LUMBAR VERTEBRA

43. SACRUM & COCCYX

44. SACRUM & COCCYX

46. THE STERNUM & RIBS • The rib cage consists of 12 pairs of ribs with the thoracic vertebrae at the back portion of the body & join to the sternum in the front portion. • Movement of the rib cage are brought about by intercostal muscles between the ribs.

47. THE STERNUM & RIBS • The sternum & ribs enclose & protect the internal organs (the lungs & heart) & play an important role in breathing.

49. THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

50. PECTORAL GIRDLE • Consist of scapula & clavicle. • Links the upper limbs bones to the axial skeleton. • The scapula : bound by muscles to the back of the thorax. It is a flat, triangular bone which provides a surface for the attachment of muscles.