Trends Related to Fecundity ~ An Anthropological Perspective

1. Trends Related to Fecundity ~An Anthropological Perspective Physical and Environmental Factors Socio-Culture Factors Voluntary/Involuntary Childlessness - Infertility Overcoming Infertility Techniques

2. Key Terms: • Fertility—actual reproduction • Fecundity ---denotes the ability to reproduce

3. How do cultural norms affect fertility rates? • Overt (open) • Covert (implied) • China – Walking marriages – freedom is important – couples do not want to live together (crowded) • To obtain an apartment, must be married • Many women not wanting children • Disassociation from traditional culture

4. Hong Kong – Tradition – wanting to give birth in year of the dragon – divinity and good fortune – children will be bright, smart and sensitive • Otherwise, Hong Kong has lowest fertility rate in the world • Israel – marriages can be dissolved after 10 years of childlessness (seen as tragic) – government subsidizes fertility treatments – more fertility clinics per capita

5. FERTILITY AND FECUNDITY 2 factors that contribute to change in fecundity rates: • physical and environmental factors • socio-culture factors

6. Physical and Environmental Factors • Couple is considered infertile when it has been trying to conceive for over one year without success Factors: • Rapid spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STD/I’s) • Decline in male sperm count –can be linked to developed countries where water/food make contain high levels of estrogen • High levels of estrogen are believed to be due to small amounts of women’s oral contraceptives finding their way into the water system • By products of the chemicals also found in some food packaging and plastics

7. 3) Changes in the Institution of Marriage and Family 4) Delayed Marriage • Women delaying motherhood to pursue careers (trend in society) • http://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/doczone/2011/modernmarriage/

8. Fertility and Cultural Norms • Demographers John Bongaarts and Robert Potter studied the proximate determinants of fertility • Biological, and behavioural factors through which social, economic and environmental variables affect fertility

9. Bongaarts and Potter: “Fertility, Biology, and Behaviour: An Analysis of Proximate Determinates” • Cultural norms are affected by: • Age of first menstruation, • age at marriage, • frequency of intercourse, • length of breast-feeding, • use and effectiveness of contraception, and • onset of permanent sterility

10. This suggest the following trends: Developed Countries… Developing Countries… Mothers breast feed children longer Once child is weaned (removed from breast milk) the mother is capable of becoming pregnant • Use contraception to delay births and surgery to prevent them

11. Fertility and Cultural Normshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KskX6LZYqv8n Hutterites: • High fertility rate • Live in small communities • Follow strict social and religious conduct and control • Women bear average of 9 children (strict ban on contraceptives) • Marriage occurs in mid 20s • Shorter period of breast-feeding results in intervals of about 2 years

12. Why do fewer women breastfeed in developed societies than in developing societies? What impact does this have on fecundity? • Notion that individuals are expected to be autonomous (independent) • Babies expected to sleep in own cribs, play alone, and breast fed for only a few months

13. Links between breast-feeding and Fecundity • In many countries mothers and their babies from the moment they are born are expected to be autonomous (sleep in their own crib, play alone, beast fed for only a few months) • Mothers only get 6-8 weeks maternity leave at most places (others get up to a year)—when they return to work they can no longer upkeep breast feeding • Maternity leave is short in US (6-8 weeks)

14. Infants benefit greatly from breast milk – meets their nutritional needs, immunizes against disease, improves digestion and body systems, reduces risk of allergies, economical • Breast-feeding has a contraceptive effect on the woman • Release of prolactin (pituitary hormone that regulates production of progesterone) and inhibits ovulation

15. Age of Menarche and Marriage • Menarche—age at which a woman experiences her first menstrual period • 2 other factors that affect fecundity: age of menarche and age upon marriage • Developed countries: women eat diets high in fat, protein and calories, little physical activity, little exposure to elements =lower menarche age • Developing/pre-industrial societies: low calorie diet (plants/roots), fish, little or no dairy products or processed grains, lots of physical activity = higher menarche age

16. Voluntary/Involuntary Childlessness

17. Involuntary and Voluntary Childlessness • In many societies a marriage is seen as incomplete without children • Many cultures—woman is seen as “defected” if she does not want children • Many countries—not being able to have children is considered reasonable grounds for divorce • (Ghana, marriage without children is considered incomplete and divorce is sought out, Israel a marriage that remains childless for 10 years is seen as grounds for divorce)

18. Voluntary Childlessness • Voluntary Childlessness – couples or individuals who freely choose to remain childless • Many couples who choose not to have children have to deal with unwanted sympathy or attacked for being “selfish” - DINKs

19. Voluntary Childlessness – Stereotypes/Reasons for women who choose childlessness: • Hedonists – choose childlessness to preserve their standard of living • Emotional – do not have the emotional draw to have children • Idealistic – do not want to bring a child into the world because they feel it is unsuitable • Practical – have a practical reason such as not wanting to pass on a genetic illness

20. Psychological Impact of Involuntary Childlessness Involuntary Childlessness – occurs when a couple or individual wants children and cannot. This is either caused by infertility or by not having a mate. 1. Emotional Devastation • Guilt, sadness, loss of control, anger (especially towards doctors), isolation, grieving process similar to grieving a death • News is almost always unexpected (go through life assuming when you want to have children that you will be able to) • Many times family and friends underestimate the emotional impact which can make it that much harder

21. 2. Burden of Reproductive Technologies: • Reproductive Technologies – technologies designed to help improve the couple’s chances of conceiving and carrying a child to term through medical manipulation (expensive and not covered by health plans in most countries) • Side effects from some treatments/fertility drugs can include blurred vision, irritability, increased risks of certain types of cancers • Excessive time commitment (organize life around dates and times). Lose element of spontaneity • Emotional relationship between parents is tested, possible feelings of blame and guilt, stress, anxiety, depression

22. Overcoming Infertility

23. Adoption • Estimated over 20,000 children in need of homes • Only 1,200 adopted yearly • Approximately2000 adopted internationally • Very expensive and long process • Tedious application process • http://www.canadaadopts.com/canada/domestic_public.shtml • http://www.canadaadopts.com/canada/overseas.shtml

24. Reproductive Technologies • Medical reproduction of the woman’s reproductive cycle or male sperm count to assist couple in having children • Usually not covered by Healthcare system • Expensive and lengthy process • May not be successful • Stressful on the relationship

25. Surrogacy • Means replacement • Surrogate mother lends her uterus to another couple so they can have a baby • Raises ethical and legal questions • Baby M caseP196 • http://www.kylewood.com/familylaw/babym.htm

26. Canadian Law re: Reproduction, Surrogacy, Sperm Donation • http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/prb0035-e.htm