Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS

1. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Socioling studies cliff’s notes: http://www.putlearningfirst.com/language/research/research.html • You should be able to provide basic info for at least Milroy, Labov and Trudgill

2. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Fischer (1958) • Variable = (ing) = runnin’ vs. running • Findings: boys use -in’ more than girls • More use of -ing in formal styles • Difference between model boy and typical boy • See p. 167 for fancy charts!

3. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Fischer (1958) • Variable = (ing) = runnin’ vs. running • Findings: boys use -in’ more than girls • More use of -ing in formal styles • Difference between model boy and typical boy • See p. 167 for fancy charts!

4. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Labov - NYC (and from article) • Variable = (r) = • Department store study and Lower East Side study - diff methodologies, similar findings • Dept Store - where are the women’s shoes? Fourth floor. Excuse me? Fourth Floor! - see p. 169 • LES study shows hypercorrection pattern (see next slide) – style shifting shows some consciousness/prestige • Also investigated (th) = use of stop [t] instead of fricative in words like thin (see p. 169) • Sharp stratification between MC and WC shown in (th) data – indicates some consciousness - prestige

5. Wardhaugh – Chapter 2 What does this graph show?

6. Wardhaugh – Chapter 2 What does this graph show?

7. Wardhaugh – Chapter 2 What does this graph show? Sharp stratification

8. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS England - Norwich (Trudgill) and Reading (Cheshire) • Trudgill looks at 16 phonological variables • Finds social correlation with (ng), (t) and (h) • Similar patterns to Labov - style and class show distribution with more attention, more standard, and higher class, more standard (and women, more standard) • Chershire looks at grammatical variable (s) [and others] • She finds that there are linguistic factors as well as social ones - what word the variable is in = uses a vernacular index to indicate how vernacular a child was in participating in various events and how vernacular a word was (kill more vernacular) • Covert prestige vs. overt prestige • Gender differences

9. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS England - Norwich (Trudgill) and Reading (Cheshire) • Trudgill 1972 (article)

10. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Detroit - Wolfram and Shuy • African Americans in Detroit • Variables (ng), (z) = 3rd person singular present tense agreement • (ng) finds [again!] that more formal styles, more standard (more -ing); higher social class has more standard variant; women have higher standard variant • See graphs p. 178-179 - contrast (z) grammatical variable vs. (r) phonological one shows sharp stratification vs. gradual stratification, respectively

11. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Detroit - Wolfram and Shuy • Sharp stratification (morphosyntax) vs. Gradual stratification (phonological)

12. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Various • Macaulay finds variation within variation • Each class had variation that was more continuous than the group averages indicate - reflect more complexities of social structure • Still informative because each class varies around a central point and those point (averages) are different for each class

13. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Various • Kiesling (1998) - frat men • Uses discourse analysis and comes up with explanations for men who do not fit pattern of (ing) usage (see p. 181) • He has an article on use of DUDE as a discourse marker indicating solidarity in American Speech if interested!

14. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Various • Kiesling (1998) - frat men – not all men behave the same (p. 77)

15. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Various • Kiesling (1998) - frat men – not all men behave the same (p. 78)

16. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Various • Kiesling (1998) - frat men – not all men behave the same in contexts (p. 85)

17. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Various • Kiesling (1998) - frat men – not all men behave the same – ling factors (p. 82)

18. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Montreal French • Various studies (Sankoff and Cedegren) or (Sankoff and Vincent) show that linguistics factors are important as well as social ones • See p. 182 for discussion Teheran Persian • Hudson’s discussion of Jahangiri of Tehran Persian • See p. 180 for clear differentiations and use of standard deviation - different than Maccaulay

19. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Belfast - the Milroys • Looked at 3 communities in Northern Ireland: Ballymacaarrett, the Hammer, and the Clonard • (a) and (dh) variables • Show mixed findings but links social networks with the use of vernacular forms - indicating that a close-knit network serves as a norm enforcement mechanism which means the ling norms (use of vernacular forms) can be more enforced in close-knit networks than not - not the same orientation to the standard forms if the “standard” within the group is seen as a different form • Kind of like covert prestige

20. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Other issues • Final consonant cluster reduction or AKA t/d deletion AKA coronal stop deletion - Wolfram and Labov show that there is a mix of linguistic and social factors affecting the variation • This shows linguistic and social effects • Variable rules used to more to satisfy Chomsky (Sociolinguists use Varbrul to calculate weight of effect of variable – over .5 means that this factor favors production – under .5 means this factor disfavors production) • Variable analysis now used to compare the weight of all these factors on their influence of variation - VARBRUL = Variable Rule program - http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/lang/webstuff/goldvarb/ • See p. 187-194 • With respect to t/d/ deletion - With ling factors, there is an order of constraints - which factors affect the variation the most

21. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Other issues • Labov shows a different order for some speakers rather than others (e.g., before pause) • Table on p. 191 shows that different varieties have a different constraint system - one ling variable is realized in different ways in different varieties - not just that one variable EXISTS in some varieties but not others; rather how each variety treats that variable is what differentiates it from another variety • Variable rules used to be used more to satisfy Chomsky • Variable analysis now used to compare the weight of all these factors on their influence of variation

22. Wardhaugh – Chapter 7 – SOME FINDINGS Other issues • t/d deletion – Labov (1994) p. 554 – What does functional/counterfunctional mean? p. 553