The lexc Language

1. The lexc Language Prepare to partition your brain to learn a whole new formalism.

2. The lexc language • “lexc” stands for “LEXicon Compiler” • lexc is a high-level, declarative programming language • lexc is different from regular expressions and from xfst • the syntax is different • the assumptions are different • the special characters are different • the interfaces are different • BUT, the lexc compiler produces STANDARD Xerox networks • these networks are fully compatible with networks from xfst • you can sometimes choose to use lexc or xfst for building a network This is all fertile ground for confusion!

3. Why a Separate lexc Language? • Lexc is intended for use by lexicographers. • Regular expressions in xfst are often hard to read, especially big ones • Typing spaces between all the letters , e.g. e l e p h a n t , to be concatenated in xfst is a nuisance, especially if you need to type 40,000 words • You can also write {elephant} in xfst regular expressions, but that’s a nuisance too • Lexc is more efficient for compiling large natural-language lexicons (it optimizes the union operation) • Lexc has better error messages • But remember: • lexc is just another formalism for defining finite-state languages and relations • you can (and will) use lexc and xfst together in building significant applications

4. The lexc Source File: Multichar_Symbols • The lexc compiler and the xfst regular-expression compiler have completely opposite assumptions about multicharacter symbols: • In xfst Regular Expressions, the default is to treat a string of symbols written together, e.g. %+Noun or cat, as a single symbol. Concatenation of separate symbols is indicated by manually separating symbols with white space, e.g. [ c a t ], or by using the curly-brace notation, e.g. {cat}. • In lexc, in contrast, the default is to treat strings, e.g. cat, as a concatenation of three symbols. Any multicharacter symbols must be explicitly declared at the top of the source file.

5. Multichar_Symbols declaration • Multichar_Symbols +Noun +Verb +Adj +Adv +Sg +Pl +1P +2P +3P ^FEAT1 ^FEAT2 The Multichar_Symbols statement is formally optional and is placed at the top of your lexc source file. You can declare as many multicharacter symbols as you find necessary or useful. The compiler uses this declaration to separate the strings of your lexc program into symbols. You are strongly encouraged to include a non-alphabetic character like the plus sign or the circumflex to help the multicharacter symbol stand out visually.

6. The Body of your lexc Program • The body of a lexc program is composed of LEXICONs. • There should be one LEXICON named Root. It corresponds to the Start State in the resulting Network. • If you don’t define a LEXICON Root, lexc will try to use the first LEXICON in the file as the Start State. LEXICON Root dog N ; cat N ; bird N ;

7. Entries in a LEXICON • Each defined LEXICON must have at least one entry. • An entry consists of two parts and is terminated with a semicolon datacontinuation-class ; • The data part has to fit one of four formats: • string e.g. dog • upper:lower e.g. swim:swam • < regular-expression > e.g. < a b* c > • empty e.g.

8. upper:lower Entries • The upper:lower entries are the simplest way to specify portions of the network where the upper-side and lower-side differ. They are especially useful for irregularies/suppletions. • Multichar_Symbols +Verb +Past +Noun +Sg +Pl • LEXICON Root • swim+Verb+Past:swam # ; • go+Verb+Past:went # ; • child+Noun+Pl:children # ; • ox+Noun+Pl:oxen # ;

9. upper:lower Entries • In upper:lower entries, you can overtly indicate where the epsilons should go. • Multichar_Symbols +Verb +Past +Noun +Sg +Pl +Nom • LEXICON Root • poder+Verb:pod0r FutCond ; Danger: the lexc upper:lower notation is not quite the same as the regular-expression colon notation.

10. Regular Expressions in lexc • Any data written as a regular expression must be surrounded with angle brackets, e.g. < e l e p h a n t > CC ; < a b* c+> CC ; • Inside angle brackets, you revert to all the assumptions suitable for xfst regular expressions, including the treatment of multicharacter symbols vs. concatenation of symbols. • This is fertile ground for confusion and errors.

11. Continuation Classes • The Continuation Class is just the name of a defined LEXICON or #, indicating end-of-word (a final state). Multichar_Symbols +Noun +Sg +Pl LEXICON Root dog N ; cat N ; LEXICON N +Noun+Sg:0 # ; +Noun+Pl:s # ;

12. Thinking About lexc LEXICONS • A LEXICON should hold a coherent class of morphemes • The entries in a lexc LEXICON are unioned together by the compiler; the order of the entries in a LEXICON is not significant. • Think of LEXICONs as potential “targets” • Entries “point at” a LEXICON via the ContinuationClass • But each entry in a LEXICON could itself point to a different ContinuationClass • During development, you may have to subdivide lexicons • Avoid having copies of the same material (if possible) • You may change an entry in one place and forget to change the copy

13. Formally Speaking • Lexc syntax is a kind of right-recursive phrase-structure grammar. • Phrase-structure grammars can in general describe languages beyond finite-state power, including languages with balanced parentheses. • But with the right-recursive limitation, a phrase-structure grammar can define only finite-state languages. • Lexc can describe only finite-state languages. • Lexc descriptions compile into finite-state networks.

14. Lexc Idiom: Optional Morphemes via By-Pass LEXICON Vroot kant V ; dir V ; don V ; pens V ; LEXICON V AdLex ; Vend ; LEXICON AdLex ad Vend ; LEXICON Vend as # ; is # ; os # ; us # ; u # ; i # ;

15. Lexc Idiom: Optional Morphemes via “Escape” Entries LEXICON Vroot kant AdLex ; dir AdLex ; don AdLex ; pens AdLex ; LEXICON AdLex ad Vend ; Vend ; ! escape LEXICON Vend as # ; is # ; os # ; us # ; u # ; i # ;

16. Lexc Idiom: Loops • LEXICON Nroot LEXICON Plur • kat N ; j Case ; ! Opt. plural ending • hund N ; Case ; • elefant N ; • LEXICON N LEXICON Case • eg N ; ! loop n # ; ! Opt. case ending • et N ; ! loop # ; • in N ; ! loop • Nend ; • LEXICON Nend • o Plur ;

17. Stem compounding (loops) in lexc • LEXICON Nroot LEXICON Plur • kat N ; j Case ; ! Opt. plural ending • hund N ; Case ; • elefant N ; • LEXICON N LEXICON Case • Nroot ; n # ; • Nend ; # ; • LEXICON Nend • o Plur ;

18. Special Characters in lexc • Overall, there are far fewer special characters in lexc than in regular expressions. In lexc, the following are special: • Special Literalized • : used in upper:lower notation %: • ; terminates an entry %; • < begins a regular expression %< • > ends a regular expression %> • 0 denotes the empty string (epsilon) %0 • ! introduces a comment line %! • # continuation-class for end-of-word %# • % literalizing prefix %%

19. Lexc source files • Lexc sources files are ascii, typically edited with xemacs • Lexc programs for natural language can get very large • Typically 8000 to 12000 entries for verbs • Tens of thousands of entries for nouns and proper nouns

20. The lexc interface • Invoke the lexc interface by simply entering ‘lexc’ at the UNIX prompt. • unixprompt% lexc • You communicate with the interface using lexc commands. Type ‘?’ to see all the possible commands. Invoke ‘help commandname’ to see some terse online documentation. • Enter ‘quit’ to leave lexc and return to the operating system. • lexc: quit

21. The Three lexc Registers • To understand lexc commands, you must understand that they refer to and operate on networks held in three registers, visualized as Typically used to store a lexicon FST. SOURCE RULES Typically used to store a rule FST or FSTs. Typically used to store the result of composing the rule FST(s) under the source FST. RESULT

22. Basic lexc commands compile-source filename compiles the lexc source code in filename and stores the resulting network in SOURCE SOURCE read-rules filename reads the binary file filename and stores the network(s) in RULES. The binary file may be from xfst or twolc. RULES compose-result composes the RULE FST(s) under the SOURCE FST and stores the resulting FST in RESULT RESULT

23. Some Other lexc Commands • read-source load a pre-compiled binary network into the SOURCE register • save-source filenamestore network in SOURCE to binary file • save-result filenamestore network in RESULT to binary file • lookup word (equivalent to the xfst ‘apply up’) • lookdown word (equivalent to the xfst ‘apply down’) • result-to-source move the network from the RESULT • register to SOURCE • Enter ‘?’ to see all the lexc interface commands.

24. Using lexc and xfst together • Write a lexc source file (e.g. mysrc.lex) using xemacs or a similar editor • Write suitable alternation rules (in xfst or even twolc). Compile them and save the network(s) to file, e.g. to myrul.fst • Then from the lexc interface: lexc: compile-source mysrc.lex lexc: read-rules myrul.fst lexc: compose-result lexc: save-result mylang.fst

25. Using lexc and xfst together • Lexc lexicons build “words” (strings) using union and concatenation • Entries within a LEXICON are unioned (the order of entries is not significant) • The LEXICON Root corresponds to the start state • The special # continuation class corresponds to final states • Other continuation classes translate into concatenation • By Xerox convention, upper-side strings consist of a baseform and “tags” • By convention, a surface (or more surfacy) form appears on the lower-side • The surfacy forms generated by lexc may still be rather abstract, hyper-regular, or “morphophonemic”. They may sometimes contain multicharacter symbols. • Replace Rules (perhaps a whole cascade of them) map from the surfacy strings produced by lexc to real surface strings; rules are applied using composition. • Composition can also be used to “filter” out various kinds of overgeneration.

26. A Typical Finite-State System Filters (xfst) .o. Core Lexicon (lexc) .o. Orthographical or Phonological Alternation Rules (xfst)

27. A System may be a Union of Subsystems Nouns (lexc) Verbs (lexc) Adjs (lexc) Numbers (lexc) .o. .o. Verb Rules Noun Rules Then, in xfst: define final NounFST | VerbFST | AdjFST | NumberFST ;

28. Review: Outputs and Inputs • Unix Pipe: • cat wordlist.in | sort | uniq -c | sort -rnb > myfile.out • The output of one routine is the input to the next • NOT reversible • Cascade of Replace Rules: • read regex [ N -> m || _ p ] .o. [ p -> m || m _ ] ; • Reversible/bidirectional relation • apply down: the output of the first rule is the input to the second • the lower side of the top rule is the upper side of the bottom rule

29. Review: Up and Down • In xfst (regular expressions) In lexc • a:bswim+Verb+Past:swam • %+Pl:s upper:lower • [ a .x. b ] • a -> b • a <- b

30. Review: Xerox Conventions • Upper (lexical) language: baseform+Tag+Tag+Tag • Lower (surface) language: orthographical-string The lexical side language, and all intermediate languages, have to be defined by the linguist writing the grammar. (mapping via rules) The surface language is usually determined for you by the standard orthography.

31. Review: Up and Down with Composition A rule that refers to tags on its lower side .o. baseform+Tag+Tag+Tag surfacy-form An FST defined using lexc .o. A rule that refers to a surfacy form on its upper side

32. Review: Think in terms of Languages and Relations Lexical Language Core Lexicon FST Surfacy Language Rule1 Intermediate Language Rule2 Intermediate Language Rule n Final Surface Language

33. Other Important Topics in The Book • Composition is Our Friend • Modify a common “core” network to handle • Multiple orthographies • Multiple dialects • Multiple registers • Testing with the Finite-State Calculus • Bulk testing against corpora • Regression testing/comparison • Testing against wordlists • Testing the well-formedness of the upper-side strings

34. Advanced Features • “Flag Diacritic” features and feature unification • Simplify lexc descriptions • Help keep transducers small • The compile-replace Algorithm • Useful for non-concatenative morphology • Reduplication • Semitic Interdigitation