Chapter 11

1. Chapter 11 Drugs of Abuse

2. Objectives • Students should gain an understanding of: • The classification of drugs under the Controlled Substances Act • The drugs that are commonly abused • Screening tests that are used to detect illicit drugs • Confirmatory tests for illicit drugs

3. Introduction • 19th century: active compounds in poppies and coca plants extracted and purified • Processing resulted in morphine and cocaine • Narcotics were unregulated and widely available from physicians, from drugstores, and through the mail • Early 1900s: an estimated 250,000 drug addicts in the United States

4. History of Drug Regulation (1 of 5) • 1875: San Francisco banned opium dens • Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906: required accurate labeling of patent medicines containing opium (first national drug law in United States) • Harrison Narcotic Act (1914): prohibited sale of substantial doses of opiates or cocaine except by licensed doctors • Prohibition (1919): Eighteenth Amendment banned liquor; shortage of alcohol increased demand for other intoxicating substances

5. History of Drug Regulation (2 of 5) • 1933: U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics began “war on marijuana” • Marijuana Tax Act (1937): classified marijuana as a narcotic • Opium Poppy Act (1942): implemented licensing and taxation measures to curtail recreational use of opium • Narcotics Act of 1946: regulated synthesis of opium and cocaine

6. History of Drug Regulation (3 of 5) • Boggs Act of 1951: created list of federally prohibited controlled substances, including marijuana • Manufacturing Act (1960): tightened controls over legally manufactured narcotic drugs

7. History of Drug Regulation (4 of 5) • Comprehensive Drug Abuse and Prevention and Control Act of 1970 • Also known as Controlled Substances Act (CSA) • Developed a drug classification and control system • Created five schedules based on each substance’s medicinal value, risk of harm, and potential for abuse • Extent to which a drug is controlled is based on schedule into which it falls

8. History of Drug Regulation (5 of 5) • Comprehensive Drug Abuse and Prevention and Control Act of 1970 • Criminal penalties are the most severe for offenses involving Schedule I and II drugs • A designer drug that is substantially similar in chemical structure to a controlled substance triggers the same penalties as if it were part of that schedule • Many states have modeled their drug laws on the CSA

9. Drug Dependence (1 of 2) • Factors affecting the risk of dependence: • Dose • Route of administration • Frequency of administration • Metabolism

10. Drug Dependence (2 of 2) • Physical dependence: withdrawal sickness occurs when administration of the drug stops • Psychological dependence: drug creates feelings of satisfaction and a desire to repeat the experience

11. Narcotics (1 of 5) • A narcotic is a substance that numbs the senses, placing the user in a stupor that eventually results in sleep. • The source of most narcotics is opium. • All of these chemicals are known as alkaloids.

12. Narcotics (2 of 5) • Why opiates work: the lock-and-key model • Drug molecule fits into a receptor site in the body and initiates a particular event • Molecular attraction is easily broken, making the effect of the drug temporary • Chemists can design molecules for an optimal fit in a receptor site

13. Narcotics (3 of 5) • Morphine • The most concentrated alkaloid (10%) • Potent analgesic and cough suppressant • Codeine • One of the most potent cough suppressants known

14. Narcotics (4 of 5) • Heroin • Similar physiological action to morphine • Easy to prepare for intravenous injection • Rarely sold in pure form—usually diluted • Wide variability in purity on the streets • Often causes overdoses and death • Methadone • Synthetic narcotic used to treat heroin addiction • Available for free at clinics

15. Narcotics (5 of 5) • OxyContin • Synthetic narcotic containing oxycodone • Similar to heroin and morphine • Approved in 1995 for sale as a treatment for chronic and severe pain • Often obtained illegally through forged prescriptions, theft, or prescriptions from corrupt physicians

16. Hallucinogens (1 of 6) • Hallucinogens induce a change in mood, thought, or perception. • The most abused hallucinogen is marijuana.

17. Hallucinogens (2 of 6) • Marijuana • Most commonly used illicit drug in the United States • Active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol • Casual use does not cause any physical or psychological harm or physical dependency • Repeated use can lead to strong psychological dependence and amotivational syndrome • Supreme Court has overturned state laws allowing backyard cultivation for personal use; federal antidrug legislation trumps state laws

18. Hallucinogens (3 of 6) • Mescaline • Found in mescal buttons on peyote cactus • Produces distortions of reality and can thrust the user into a deep meditative state

19. Hallucinogens (4 of 6) • Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) • First discovered in 1938 • Highly potent: small amount induces 12-hour delirium of distortions of vision and sound, space and time, restlessness, paralysis, shouting, babbling, sense of existing outside of body • Taken orally and quickly absorbed into body

20. Hallucinogens (5 of 6) • Phencyclidine (PCP) • PCP can be snorted, smoked, or ingested. • It was originally developed as an intravenous anesthetic, but was discontinued in 1965 due to disturbing side effects. • Individuals on PCP are dangerous to themselves and to others.

21. Hallucinogens (6 of 6) • Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) • Became a popular club drug in the 1980s • Produces a heightened sense of emotion and awareness and empathy with companions • Can lead to more serious effects, such as depression, aggressive outbursts, panic attacks, and paranoia

22. Depressants (1 of 3) • Diminish a person’s functional activity by inhibiting the activity of the nervous system • May be prescribed as tranquilizers to relieve emotion, stress, anxiety, and tension; as sleep aids; and to relieve pain • Can induce psychological dependence and addiction

23. Depressants (2 of 3) • Ethyl alcohol • Is controlled by ATF, not DEA • Is the most abused drug in Western countries • Strongly inhibits the functioning of the CNS for a few hours after drinking • Is quickly absorbed into the bloodstream • Can result in slurred speech, loss of limb coordination, and loss of emotional control owing to depression of brain activity

24. Depressants (3 of 3) • Barbiturates • These drugs slow down many areas of the brain. • Many remain legal and are often obtained through forged prescriptions. • Barbiturates are taken orally and may be combined with alcohol to increase the intoxicating effect. • Withdrawal can be more difficult than withdrawal from heroin.

25. Stimulants (1 of 3) • Stimulate the CNS • Increase alertness and physical activity

26. Stimulants (2 of 3) • Amphetamines • Have been marketed for nasal congestion, mild depression, and appetite suppression • Promote the release of adrenalin • Are injected intravenously • Methamphetamine • Is produced in clandestine labs • Is available as “ice,” a new form that is becoming heavily used

27. Stimulants (3 of 3) • Cocaine • The powder form is usually inhaled, but the drug can also be injected intravenously or smoked (crack). • Inhaling and injecting lead to a high much faster than snorting. • The euphoria fades quickly, leaving the user depressed and anxious. • The desire to repeat the euphoric feeling is so intense that crack users quickly develop a habit.

28. Inhalants • Are popular among children and youth • Are easy to obtain, inexpensive, not subject to criminal penalties • Produce effects similar to drinking alcohol • Can be inhaled by leaning over open container or by sniffing a rag soaked in the substance

29. Club Drugs • Are tasteless, odorless, and colorless • Are difficult to detect in toxicology or blood tests • Render the victim unconscious but responsive with little or no memory of what happened • Are often used in drug-facilitated sexual assaults (e.g., GHB, Rohypnol, Ketamine) • Rohypnol: once a legal prescription in the United States, but outlawed in 2000 • Ketamine: used as a veterinary sedative or hospital-grade anesthetic

30. Anabolic Steroids • Definition: androgenic performance-enhancing drugs that are synthetic derivatives of testosterone • Average dose for medical use: 1–5 mg • For body building: hundreds of milligrams • Most popular sources: illegal imports and drugs made in clandestine U.S. laboratories

31. Identifying Compounds in Evidence Samples (1 of 6) • Principles of drug analysis • Criminal penalties depend on actual substance present in sample and amount of substance present • Drug analysis process • Step 1: Chemist performs a screening test • Step 2: Chemist performs a quantitative analysis to confirm the sample’s identity and determine its mass

32. Identifying Compounds in Evidence Samples (2 of 6) • Presumptive tests: color tests • Some controlled substances produce vivid colors when they contact certain reagents • Color change is used as a screening test in the field • Color test reagents • Dillie-Koppanyl • Duquenois-Levine • Marquis Reagent • Scott Test • Van Urk

33. Identifying Compounds in Evidence Samples (3 of 6) • Presumptive tests: microcrystalline tests • Specific controlled substances are identified by observing the color and morphology of the crystals that form when the substance is mixed with a reagent • Size and shape of the crystals formed in this way can be compared with crystals produced when the same reagent is applied to a reference sample

34. Identifying Compounds in Evidence Samples (4 of 6) • Presumptive tests: thin-layer chromatography • Separation technique takes advantage of the solubility and physical properties of the controlled substance to separate and distinguish compounds in a mixture • Multiple samples and standards can be spotted on the same TLC plate and the results of the separation compared

35. Identifying Compounds in Evidence Samples (5 of 6) • Confirmatory tests: infrared spectrophotometry • Unknown sample must be purified to removed unwanted materials • Selected absorption of infrared radiation by organic molecules is a valuable technique for identifying the molecules

36. Identifying Compounds in Evidence Samples (6 of 6) • Confirmatory tests: gas chromatography–mass spectrometry • GC separates diluents and adulterants from the controlled substance • MS records the sample’s mass spectrum • MS produces a series of small mass peaks (fragments) that are unique to organic compounds • GC-MS identification is the most reliable confirmation test

37. Tracking Drug Distribution: CISPA • Chromatographic impurity signature profile analysis (CISPA) allows chemists to link individual bags of drugs to a specific shipment. • CISPA uses gas chromatography to separate and identify the impurities created when the drug is manufactured. • Impurities in cocaine create a unique pattern of GC peaks that can be recorded.

38. Personal Testing for Drugs of Abuse • Objective of workplace testing is to eliminate erratic behavior, prevent injuries, and avoid hiring persons who abuse drugs. • Screening uses TLC and immunoassay testing; GC-MS is used as a confirmatory test if needed. • Immunoassays take only 10 minutes to perform and can simultaneously screen for 10 drugs in the urine.