Independence and its Dilemmas:

1. Independence and its Dilemmas: Debates about Modernity in India during 1940s-60s

2. Prior to 1947: • 1940s a decade of mass mobilization throughout S. Asia • Congress and its theory of “Swadesh,” “Swaraj,” and “Satyagraha” • Muslim League and constitutional approach for a Muslim nation—note variant readings of “qaum” • New movements—kisan sabhas, regional parties, many abandon non-violent principles • Each party/movement had different agendas for the post-partition period

3. Tensions within Congress • Like most “umbrella” parties, Congress is an amalgamation of different groups with different agendas • Gandhi represents an older generation of leaders, Jawaharlal, his mentee, a new generation with socialist leanings • Gandhi outspoken in his critiques of mimicking European notions of modernity w/o questions. • Questions social and human toll of industrialization • Nehru more open to notions of a mixed approach b/w indigenous and western ideas

5. Eclipse of Gandhian thinking after 1947 • Pressures created by violence of partitions moves new Indian govt. to favor a secular framework • Gandhi assassinated in 1948 by Hindu fanatic, Nehru, then VP charts a new approach to development policy • Pressures created by refugees • Stresses of famine and endemic poverty • Nehru’s interest and contact with the scientific community in India • Strong influence of Fabian socialism

7. Nehru’s developmental agenda: • New emphasis on State planning as a tool of developmental policy • Creation and extension of IITs and Research Universities to foster Indian knowledge base • Key investment in Engineering and Science • Agrarian research for high-yield crops • Govt. projects including dams, railways, bridges, clean drinking water, sanitation • Focus on allocating central resources for managed regional growth • Planned cities such as Chandigarh

9. Differences w/ other post-colonial states • Emphasis on building local knowledge/resources. Foreign collaboration/experts used initially but projects encourage setting up institutions locally • Discourage foreign ownership or management of projects and infrastructure • Outcome of anti-colonial attitudes and cold war • Infrastructure becomes a state resource, not as much incentive to private businesses • State becomes largest employer, also largest manager of upper-level educational institutions

10. Bhakra Nangal Dam

11. Rationale for Nehruvian Planning • State only player in India with resources large enough to develop certain projects and industries • Politicians not necessarily suited to developmental work—planning relegated to economists, “experts,” bureaucrats • Without infrastructure, no hope of Indians achieving a better standard of life • Solutions were needed sooner rather than later

12. Problems with this approach: • Politics bound to seep into such efforts, bureaucrats and experts not immune to pressure • Without stimulus to indigenous markets, economic growth remains slow • Projects often overlook local problems and needs, prioritize only national ones • Most projects and policies favor educated middle class rather than majority of poor citizens

13. Why did projects favor middle class? • More investment in higher-level education than primary schools • Jobs created through new project create professional opportunities for upwardly-mobile professionals, only temporary manual jobs for day laborers • Did not anticipate caste-regional-religious cronyism among top ranks • Social change cannot be accomplished by legislative changes alone—policy ignored the reluctance of elite to give up power

14. Social power and resistance to change • In 1950s govt. moves to abolish zamindari and give peasants rights to land • Partially successful, but only for prosperous cultivators, not landless groups • Land ceilings rule passed later to inhibit land “hoarding” • Legal loopholes exploited by transferring property to other family members • Caste discrimination continues to be a serious issue in rural areas, particularly in North

15. Long-term impact-Educational policy: • A new class of highly-educated and well-qualified professionals emerge by the 1960s • At the same time literacy levels for rural areas do not change as dramatically • Concerns about “brain drain” in 1970s-80s • New economy of 1990s creates new opportunities for educated, not for others Scientist C. V. Raman

16. Census Figures and Development • Life expectancy was low • 1941-51: 32.5 for men, 31.7 for women • By 1958: 45.2 for men, 46.6 for women • Literacy and job prospects were low (1951 census) (1930s figure in single digits) • Overall: 23.5% for Men, 7.6% for women • Rural: 19% for men, 4.9% for women • Urban: 45.1% for men, 12.3% for women • Economy was primarily rural, and rural areas had lowest levels of literacy, health stats.

17. Social indexes now • Life expectancy • Colonial (32) (India in 2002 68.6) (Pak-63.7) (US-77) • Literacy • Colonial-single figures • 1951 23.5% men, 7.6% for Women • 2002 64.8% avg.75.3% men, 53.7% for Women (India) • Pakistan averages 48.7, much greater for men (63%est.) • Parliamentary elections in India • 1952 : 46.6% 1984: 63.4% and counting