Improving Close Reading Skills

1. Improving Close Reading Skills There are three types of question in close reading: UNDERSTANDING ANALYSIS EVALUATION

2. UNDERSTANDING

3. Using your own words –identifying meaning These questions are designed to test your ability to understand the basic meaning of the passage.

4. Using your own words –identifying meaning It is also testing that you can explain more complex concepts in simple terms. Figures of speech, for example, must be explained in simple terms and any non-standard expressions (slang or old fashioned words) must be explained in your own words.

5. Using your own words –identifying meaning It is essential that you DO NOT simply lift whole phrases or sentences from the text as you answer your questions. Use your own words UNLESS it tells you to quote to explain the meaning of words or phrases

6. Using your own words –identifying meaning For 2 marks you will probably need to supply at least TWO bits of information but may be required to give ONE detailed piece of information or FOUR brief pieces. Look at the question carefully.

7. CONTEXT Questions As well as showing that you understand the writer’s general meaning, you will be asked more precise questions, to show that you understand particular words and phrases. e.g. Show how the first sentence provides a context which enables you to understand the meaning of the word “innocuous”.

8. CONTEXT Questions To answer this question successfully you need to: Explain the meaning of a word or phrase AND Show how you figured out the meaning from its placement in the sentence or paragraph (i.e. using the context). *You MUST quote the words or phrase that provided you with the clue to figure out the meaning

9. LINK Questions The LINK question is another type of question designed to test your understanding of meaning and appreciation of the structure of a text. You will be asked to show how one sentence provides a link or connection in the argument. (Argument means the progression of ideas in a piece of writing and the link will join one idea to the next.)

10. LINK Questions Usually the link sentence will stand at the beginning of a paragraph. The first part of the sentence tends to refer back to the previoustopic and another part of the sentence will introduce the new topic to follow. You MUST explain how the sentence/part of sentence links back and forward and how the two topics connect.

11. LINK Questions QUOTEthe part of the link sentence which refers back to the earlier topic AND say what this topic is. THEN QUOTEthe part of the link sentence which looks forward to the next topic explaining what the new argument/idea/topic is. Where the sentence begins with a conjunction such as but, however, etc. which points to a change of direction, comment on the use of the conjunction.

12. Understanding In these questions you are being tested on how well you understand important points the writer is making in the given passage. Look out for words like 'explain' or 'main points' or 'line of thought' in the question. Always use your own words - do not simply repeat words from the passage. It is important to show that you understand the question by using other words with a similar meaning. Sometimes it is simply a matter of identifying a key word and showing that you understand what it means.

13. Example 'It soon became obvious that the antiquated approach taken by the judge was inappropriate.‘ Explain why the judge's method did not work. Answer - Because it was out of date. The answer does not have to be complex - the point is to show that you can paraphrase or describe in your own words. If you use the word 'antiquated' you will not score any marks. ‘Out of date' clearly demonstrates that you know what it means. Other questions will ask you to summarise key points from an excerpt or paragraph. In these questions you will need to show that you have grasped the main ideas. For questions like these, it is acceptable to use note form or bullet points.

14. Summary • use your own words • keep your answers concise • try to work for all the marks on offer

15. ANALYSIS Looking at the sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, tone and concentrating on HOWthe passage is put together and not what it means.

16. SENTENCE STRUCTURE You need to be able to recognisethe following: • Different types of sentences • How sentences can be separated or linked by different kinds of punctuation • How the component parts of a sentence can be arranged according to various patterns • How writers use different sentence structures

17. How sentences are structured In simple terms, any normal English sentence should conform to the following basic rules: • it should start with a capital letter • it should end with a full-stop • it should make sense • it should have a subject • it should contain a verb • it should normally begin with a subject • the subject should normally be followed by the verb Put simply, if any of these rules does not apply, then the 'sentence' in question is worthy of discussion.

18. Inversion The normal order is for the subject to come first followed by the words which tell us more about the subject e.g. We went back. Inversion is used to alter the emphasis in a sentence – places emphasis on a particular word for greater effect. Back we went. You need to decide what the effect is based on the tone/context of the piece of writing.

19. Repetition The writer may repeat a particular word or phrase or structure. Word patterns may be repeated to achieve a particular purpose - to inspire, frighten, contrast, persuade etc.

20. Climax/Anti-climax Climax is the use of words/phrases/sentences to create progress. A list usually is used to build up a feeling of some kind, ending in a sentence/phrase that is created to have maximum impact. In anti-climax the build-up comes to nothing. The final point made is not the most important but is something trivial or disappointing instead.

21. Antithesis A way of arranging ideas within a sentence to balance opposites together to create a contrast. This is used in poetry a lot). Those that I fight I do not hate.

22. Long and Short Sentences The way a sentence is constructed and its length can also influence meaning. Sentences that use the conjunction “and” several times can covey a feeling of speed and continuous movement or where there is a list may indicate the number of things done, or the endless nature of the task etc. A short sentence may be dramatic or convey the simplicity of the situation. As always context is key.

23. Formal Usually written No abbreviations Grammatically correct Wider range of word choice Complex/Technical tone Impersonal tone (objective) Tends to be more factual Informal Conversational/colloquial Uses shortened forms May use looser sentences More common, everyday words Personal (I, you) May include feelings Formal and informal language

24. Jargon Technical terms relating to a particular subject or occupation. The term itself can have negative associations - pompous, trying to sound impressive etc.

25. Rhetorical language Aims to give an elevated, dignified and impressive effect and is most often used in the course of a formal speech.

26. Dialect/Slang Dialect is a way of speaking in a town or district. Slang involves the use of non-standard conversational word choice.

27. Literal and Figurative Language

28. Literal Literal - words are used to mean exactly what they say. Their use corresponds to the definitions you would find if you looked them up in a dictionary. ‘You’ve let the cat out of the bag.’ When you are being literal, the person you are addressing has released the cat from the bag.

29. Figurative language Figurative language is language which uses figures of speech. This is when the writer describes things through the use of unusual comparisons for effect, interest or to make things clearer. The result of using this technique is the creation of interesting images. ‘To let the cat out of the bag’ in figurative language means to give away a secret.

30. Metaphor An unusual comparison where one thing is described in terms of something else. His house was now his prison. The idea here is that someone feels that their house is a place where they feel trapped, imprisoned, locked in, a place where they lack freedom. James launched himself at his opponent. James threw himself at someone else, dived, moved at speed, moved with power, thrust himself

31. Simile An unusual comparison where one thing is described as something else using 'like' or 'as ....as'. He looked as inconspicuous as a tarantula on a cake. He looked obvious, noticeable, distinct; he stood out; he could not be missed, was clearly identifiable, etc. because a tarantula is black, dangerous, scary and the last thing you would want on a cake. She was like a snowflake She was light, delicate, pure, insubstantial, fragile, would come and disappear quickly etc.

32. Personification An unusual comparison where something non-human (inanimate) is described in human terms. Death stalked the battlefield. Death described as a figure or person walking about, looking, searching, hunting, seeking, probing for something The ice smirked as they slipped and fell. The ice takes pleasure from seeing humans falling on slippery ice, being insecure, unsafe, in danger; it laughs at man's uncertainty, insecurity, etc.

33. Interpreting imagery Images and imagery have a purpose. Writers want you to share their thinking as fully as possible. To interpret images and explain how things work, and how well, we have to be methodical. • What is the image? • Does it work? Is it appropriate in the context? • Why is it effective?

34. Alliteration Repetition of consonants to draw attention to meaning by the use of sound, to contribute to rhythm, to draw attention to the words themselves. “The rifles rapid rattle" - The repetition of the 'r' sound echoes the sound of machine guns being fired. *Be sure to explain the effect

35. Onomatopoeia Where a word makes the sound of the thing it describes. “sausages sizzling” “bees buzzing” "the ringmaster cracked his whip” (the whip making a sharp sound) "stuttering rifles rapid rattle" (in this example, 'stuttering' imitates the action/movement of a machine-gun being fired)

36. Pun A play on words involving words that sound similar but have different meanings or words which have multiple meanings: Doctor, doctor, will this ointment cure my spots? I never make rash promises.

37. Hyperbole - deliberate exaggeration in order to emphasize the point being made Litotes – the opposite of hyperbole, deliberate understatement Euphemism - a way of making an unwelcome truth seem less harsh or unpleasant by dressing it up to sound less offensive. Many are connected to death e.g. passed away. Circumlocution - this literally means to talk around something – state in a long, roundabout sort of way rather than addressing the subject in a direct way.

38. Contrasts, opposite and contradictions Paradox - a statement which appears to be a contradiction but which on closer examination does contain a truth (“to preserve the peace, prepare for war”) Oxymoron - a condensed form of paradox, in which two opposites are placed side by side to heighten the effect of contrast Juxtaposition - simply means placing side by side In a contrast question you are normally expected to give both sides of the contrast for full marks.

39. The new, the used and the overused Neologism - coining a new phrase or word for a recent invention Archaism - denotes a word from the past which is no longer in current use Cliché-an expression which at one time might have been original but has now been overused.

40. Tone Tone does not relate directly to meaning but rather the way in which something is said. It refers to a particular attitude or feeling conveyed by the writer. “Where have you been?” The tone of the question will differ depending on the context. For example you might be talking to a friend who is just back from a holiday or a child who has been out too late. You must look for clues in the context to help you determine the writer’s feelings or attitude.

41. Types of Tone Humorous Flippant - showing irreverent attitude to something normally taken seriously Informal/conversational – chatty, friendly tone as if the author is confiding in a friend Effusive - enthusiastic and might be used to persuade – use of a lot of superlatives Ironic-where the author says the opposite of what he/she really means – can be for humorous effect but often there is a seriousness to irony Tongue-in-cheek- a form of irony; the writer sounds serious but there will be a sense of ridicule behind this (euphemism is a common feature of this tone) Satirical - extreme form of irony – here the writer is funny in a more savage way: he/she holds up a subject to ridicule in order to attack ( Serious

42. Emotive Language An emotive tone may be used to stir emotions in the reader by shocking, angering or disturbing them. This is done by using words or expressions that express extreme emotions. Rhetorical questions and exclamations are often used in emotive writing, as are similes and metaphors.

43. Analysis Questions In these questions you are being asked to show how writers use particular techniques to get their points across effectively. It is assumed that you understand what the point is, so the whole of your answer must be about the techniques. Look out for phrases like 'show how' or 'the language of lines...' or 'the effect of' in the question. You don't score any marks just for picking out the words - the marks depend on the quality of your comments.

44. Example 'Cooking is a subtle alchemy. There is magic involved in creating delicious food for people to eat. Blending certain flavours and textures, understanding the effect herbs and spices can have on a dish and instinctively knowing when to throw in that pinch of something is a gift. It is not something you can learn.' Question - What does the writer's word choice tell you about his admiration for cooks?

45. Answer By using words like “alchemy” and “magic” the writer makes it clear that he thinks that cooking has some mystery or secret power behind it. If you want full marks for this type of question you must quote specific words/phrases AND make a relevant comment about what they mean in the context.

46. The Clue is in the Question Often the question will help you understand where to focus your response. Because of the word 'admiration' in the question, you know that you need to look for words that show cooking in a positive light. Remember to check the number of marks. These questions are often for 4 marks, so a substantial answer is needed. The more relevant and to the point your answer is, the more chance you have of scoring full marks.

47. The Clue is in the Question Check that you are doing exactly what the question asks for. Is it asking for a number of techniques to be dealt with? Is it asking for more than one example of a technique? You cannot score full marks if you do not fulfil the demands of the question.

48. Remember • Always comment on the words you choose • Look for the number of marks awarded for an answer • Study the wording of the question to inform your answer

49. Be aware! Sometimes codes are combined. This can look confusing. The most common combination is A/E, which indicates that as well as evaluating the information in a passage, the answer should also analyse the language. The U/E questions ask you to focus on the ideas in the passage.

50. Evaluation A common evaluation question is to comment on the effectiveness of the final sentence or paragraph of a passage. You should look to see if there is some link to the beginning of the passage. Does it summarise the passage? Does it involve the reader in some way? Is the language used worthy of comment? Evaluation questions will ask you to comment on how effective you find the writer’s ideas / arguments, use of imagery, structure and word choice.