Note: I did clean up the slides from last period, particularly improving the FlipFlop transition tables.

1. Seqeuential Logic • State Machines • Memory Note: I did clean up the slides from last period, particularly improving the FlipFlop transition tables. Note: About making past midterms and finals available.

2. 4 1 8 4 30 25 5 20 10 15 Combinational vs. Sequential Logic • There are two types of “combination” locks Combinational: Success depends only onthevalues, not the order in which they are set. Sequential: Success depends onthesequenceof values (e.g, R-13, L-22, R-3).

3. State Machine • A type of sequential circuit • Combines combinational logic with storage • “Remembers” state, and changes output (and state) based oninputsandcurrent state State Machine Inputs Outputs Combinational Logic Circuit Storage Elements • A Mealy machine has outputs that depend on the state and input • A Moore machine has outputs that depend on state only

4. Finite State Machine • A description of a system with the following components: • A finite number of states • A finite number of external inputs • A finite number of external outputs • An explicit specification of all state transitions • An explicit specification of what determines each external output value • Often described by a state diagram. - The set of all possible states. - Inputs that trigger state transitions. - Outputs associated with each state (or with each transition).

5. State Diagram • Showsstates (e.g. A) andactions (e.g. R-13) that cause atransitionbetween states.

6. State • The state of a system is a snapshot of all the relevant elements of the system at the moment the snapshot is taken. • Examples: • The state of a basketball game can be represented bythe scoreboard. (Number of points, time remaining, possession, etc.) • The state of a tic-tac-toe game can be represented bythe placement of X’s and O’s on the board.

7. State of Sequential Lock Our lock example has four different states, labelled A-D:A: The lock isnot open,and no relevant operations have been performed. B: The lock isnot open,and the user has completed the R-13 operation. C: The lock isnot open,and the user has completedR-13, followed by L-22. D: The lock isopen.

8. State Diagram • Showsstates (e.g. A) andactions (e.g. R-13) that cause atransitionbetween states.

9. The Clock • Frequently, a clock circuit triggers transition fromone state to the next. • At the beginning of each clock cycle, the state machine makes a transition, based on the current state and the external inputs (Synchronous). • Not always required. In lock example, the input itself triggers a transition (Asynchronous). “1” “0” One Cycle time

10. Implementing a Finite State Machine • Combinational logic • Determine outputs at each state. • Determine next state. • Storage elements • Maintain state representation. State Machine Inputs Outputs Combinational Logic Circuit Storage Elements Clock

11. Storage • Each master-slave flipflop stores one state bit. • The number of storage elements (flipflops) neededis determined by the number of states(and the representation of each state). • Examples: • Sequential lock • Four states – two bits • Basketball scoreboard • 7 bits for each score digit, 5 bits for minutes, 6 bits for seconds,1 bit for possession arrow, 1 bit for half, …

12. 22 x 3 Memory word select word WE input bits address write enable address decoder output bits

13. 1K X 4 SRAM (Part Number 2114N)

14. Memory Design – 1K x 4 A[09:00]    D[03:00] Addr Block Select 

15. Memory Design – 1K x 8 D[07:04] D[03:00] A[09:00]  A[09:00]    D[07:04]  D[03:00] Addr BlockSelect => Addr Block Select =>

16. Memory Design - 2k x 8 D[07:04] D[03:00] Block 01 Block 00

17. D[07:04] D[03:00] Memory Design - 4k x 8 Block 11 Block 10 Block 01 Block 00

18. More Memory Details Two basic kinds of RAM (Random Access Memory) • Static RAM (SRAM) • fast, maintains data as long as power applied • Dynamic RAM (DRAM) • slower but denser, bit storage decays – must be periodically refreshed. Refreshing interferes with regularity of execution of instruction stream. Also, non-volatile memories: ROM, PROM, flash, …

19. 256k DRAM (256K x 1)

20. 16 M DRAM (4M x 4)

21. 1MByte DRAM (1Meg x 8 bits)

22. Some Major Advances in Computers in 50 years • VLSI • The family concept • Microprogrammed control unit • Cache memory • MiniComputers • Microprocessors • Pipelining • PC’s • Multiple processors • RISC processors • Hand helds

23. Three Classes of Today’s Computer Architectures • CISC – Complex Instruction Set Computer • RISC – Reduced Instruction Set Computer • Superscalar – Multiple similar processing units are used to execute instructions in parallel

24. Comparison of Processors

25. Driving force for CISC • Software costs far exceed hardware costs • Increasingly complex high level languages • A “Semantic” gap between HHL & ML • This Leads to: • Large instruction sets • More addressing modes • Hardware implementations of HLL statements • e.g. CASE (switch) on VAX (long, complex structure)

26. Intention of CISC • Ease compiler writing • Improve execution efficiency • Support more complex HLLs

27. RISC • Reduced Instruction Set Computer • Key features: • Large number of general purpose registers (or use of compiler technology to optimize register use) • Limited and simple instruction set • Emphasis on optimising the instruction pipeline & memory management

28. Breadth of RISC Characteristics

29. The debate: Why CISC ? • Compiler simplification? • Dispute… - Complex machine instructions are harder to exploit - Optimization actually may be more difficult • Smaller programs? (Memory is now cheap) • Programs may take up less instructions, but… • May not occupy less memory, just look shorter in symbolic form • More instructions require longer op-codes, more memory references • Register references require fewer bits

30. The Debate: Why CISC ? • Faster programs ? • More complex control unit • Microprogram control store larger •  Thus instructions may take longer to execute • Instructions are not of consistent length and take different lengths of time to complete. • Legacy challenges

31. Controversy Continued: CISC vs RISC Challenges of comparison • There are no pair of RISC and CISC that are directly comparable • There are no definitive set of test programs • It is difficult to separate hardware effects from complier effects • Most comparisons are done on “toy” rather than production machines • Most commercial machines are a mixture

32. Concentrating on RISC: Major Characteristics: • One instruction per cycle • Register to register operations • Few, simple addressing modes • Few, simple instruction formats Also: • Hardwired design (no microcode) • Fixed instruction format But: • More compile time/effort

33. Early RISC Computers • MIPS – Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages Stanford (John Hennessy) MIPS Technology • SPARC – Scalable Processor Architecture Berkeley (David Patterson) Sun Microsystems • 801 – IBM Research (George Radin)

34. Characteristics of Some Example Processors