Chapter 5: Constructing Arguments

1. Chapter 5: Constructing Arguments Andrea Ferragotti, Teddyann Murao, Gage Nelson, Ingrid Beha

2. Present and support in a way that is persuasive • Adopt a style and design • The rhetorical situation • People have different expectations for a persuasive argument

3. Goals for arguments • Hope to gain something • Adhere to the conventions of academic writing • Define your topic, develop ideas • Consider audience when creating your argument • Having a good sense of your audience will help you decide: • What decision to make • What examples and evidence to use

4. Defining your terms • Avoid defining a word by using the same term or another term that is equally complex • Try to define key terms in your own words • Definition helps control an argument by eliminating misunderstandings

5. Structuring an argument • Basic principles of argumentation: help you organize your argument effectively • Classical arrangement • Introduction: urge audience to consider the case • Statement of background: narrate the key events • Proposition: divides the part of argument focused on information on reasoning and outlines major points that will follow • Proof: confirm your case; discuss reasons why you have taken your position and cite evidence • Refutation: show what is wrong with the arguments of your opponents • Conclusion: summarize important points

6. Structuring an argument • Rogerian argument: emphasizing concessions rather than refutations and placing concessions early • Introduction: state problem that you hope to resolve • Summary of opposing views: state views of opposing audience to show that you are capable of listening • Statement of understanding: offering a kind of concession and recognize conditions that you share views of opponents • Statement of your position: your views on your argument • Statement of contexts: statement of contexts to describe situations that you hope your own views would be honored • Statement of benefits: conclude your argument by appealing to the self-interest of people; show readers how they would benefit from accepting your position

7. Inductive reasoning • Arrange evidence so it leads readers to the same conclusion you have reached • Consider specific kinds of evidence that affect your readers • Decide how much evidence is enough • Interpret and analyze evidence for your audience • Organizing an argument inductively offers a great deal of flexibility

8. Deductive reasoning • Start with generalization and works to a conclusion. • Opposite of inductive reasoning which starts with observation and ends with a conclusion. • You start with the generalization (called premise), takes a lot of thought to make a good premise. • Steps to explore topic and make general outline of argument: • Identifying your conclusion • Find out what you believe in the argument/where you stand • Examining your reasons carefully •  Not all reasons can fit to everyone • Formulate your premise •  Make sure the argument fits with the conclusion.

9. Using the Toulmin model • In an argument, you tend to use logic informally. This helps construct the argument. • State your claim clearly and offer persuasive reasons (data) • Warrant: The assumption that connects the claim and the data. • Fundamental value/belief that is shared by writer and audience. • Has no specific pattern for organization; must find way to organize that will best help the topic you’re trying to argue. 

10. Consider your audience as you generate evidence and its expectations for evidence. Consider the rhetorical situation in which you are making your argument. Provocative language may be warranted Word choice and tone is everything Using Language Effectively

11. You are presenting at a science convention. During your presentation, you would not say anything along the lines of: • Evolution only exists in Pokemon • Dinosaurs never existed • God created the world in 7 days

12. Consider these questions as you construct your argument and develop your supporting evidence: • What claims am I making that will need supporting evidence? • Where can I find such evidence? • What expectations will my audience have for the evidence I present? • Have I included sufficient evidence for my audience? • Does the kind of evidence I have included (factual, firsthand experience, philosophical reasoning, expert testimony) make sense for the claims I am making?

13. Ask yourself: • Is my overall tone likely to offend my intended audience? If so, what specifically about my tone might be offensive? How can I revise to avoid that problem? • Will my audience understand the key terms I have used? Can I use figurative language in any way to enhance my argument?

14. KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE!