PO 111: INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN POLITICS

1. PO 111: INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN POLITICS Summer I (2014) Claire Leavitt Boston University

2. TABLE OF CONTENTS • Definitions: Opinions, Attitudes and Ideology • Ideologies: Conservatism, Liberalism, Etc. • The Influence of Party • Psychological, irrational party attachment • Practical, rational party attachment • Theories of Political Decision-Making • Voters are irrational (The American Voter) • Voters are rational (Popkin) • Measuring Public Opinion: Survey Research and Bias

3. THE IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC OPINION • The source of political power in a republican democracy • The method by which the people hold their representatives accountable for their behavior • Politicians thus consider public opinion first and foremost when making political or policy decisions

4. DEFINITIONS • Political Opinions: • The way people feel about particular policy questions • Feelings that direct the political behavior of elected representatives • E.g., how do you feel about the Affordable Care Act, which President Obama signed into law in 2010? Do you support this law?

5. DEFINITIONS • Political Attitudes: • A consistent set of opinions on a series of related policies • E.g., poll asks three questions on abortion; based on the answers, an attitude emerges: the public is generally supportive of access to abortion but with some restrictions

6. DEFINITIONS • Political Ideology: • A consistent set of attitudes that are organized according to general political principles • E.g., I believe the government should provide help to people who live in poverty

7. DISTINCTIONS • Opinion: I oppose the proposed ban on partial-birth abortion • Attitude: I support the right to a legal abortion in almost all cases • Ideology: I believe the government should stay out of the private lives of its citizens

8. THE IDEOLOGICAL SPECTRUM • Libertarianism: • The government should not regulate private industry or private social behavior • The government should not have an active overseas military presence • The government should not get involved in overseas military activity unless the nation is directly at risk of attack • The government’s only responsibility should be to protect natural liberties

9. THE IDEOLOGICAL SPECTRUM • Conservatism: • General distrust in government’s ability to provide for citizens; trust private industry and commerce instead • General distrust in government’s ability to solve social problems • General support of a large military and an active overseas presence that promotes American interests • General skepticism toward social change

10. THE IDEOLOGICAL SPECTRUM • Liberalism: • Government should actively help solve social problems and provide for American citizens • Government should protect the rights of minorities against majority oppression • Government should minimize the risks of modern life • Tolerance of a wider range of social behaviors that have not been historically accepted • Skeptical toward tradition and favorable toward change

11. THE IDEOLOGICAL SPECTRUM • American conceptions of liberalism and conservatism differ from their traditional (European) meanings • Traditional liberalism: • Natural rights, limited government that protects those rights, belief in popular sovereignty • The Framers; John Locke • Traditional conservatism: • Hierarchical social order based on clear distinctions; upper classes had responsibility to promote social stability

12. THE IDEOLOGICAL SPECTRUM • Socialism: • Trusts government more than private industry • The private sector cannot be trusted not to exploit workers in pursuit of profit • Government should own and direct production and commerce; ensure the equality of all people • No large-scale socialist movement in America

13. THE IDEOLOGICAL SPECTRUM • Anarchism: • Believes in the absence of government and a return to the theoretical state of nature • People should live utterly free of state influence • People should assume the primary responsibility for protecting and providing for themselves, along with help of voluntary associations

14. THE INFLUENCE OF PARTY • Political Party: A coalition of people and political actors that have shared interests • These interests may or may not be ideological • Membership in a party would help solve your problems/represent your interests better than you could on your own • Solution to the problem of collective action • Federalist Party vs. Jackson’s Democratic Party

15. THE INFLUENCE OF PARTY • Party is one of the biggest determinants of vote choice • Party serves as an effective cue that lets people know which candidate will be most likely to represent their interests • Practical, rational and psychological, irrational explanations for the importance of party

16. RATIONAL EXPLANATION FOR PARTY INFLUENCE • Party affiliation is established over time and over the course of many elections • Voter chooses his party based on the candidates/issues • As opposed to choosing candidates/issues based on his party • Party affiliation can change gradually and without major psychological upheavals

17. IRRATIONAL EXPLANATION FOR PARTY INFLUENCE • Attachment to party equivalent to attachment to a religious or ethnic group; team mentality • Party is an element of personal identity • Can arise from direct personal experiences • Can arise from socialization (friends, family, culture) • Changing party affiliation is very unlikely; can result in social stigma and even psychological trauma

18. HOW VOTERS THINK: COMPETING THEORIES • The Michigan School: Voters are irrational actors • Party ID is acquired through socialization • Attitudes are acquired via party • Voters do not possess coherent ideologies • Voters cannot connect party-acquired attitudes to their opinions on specific issues • Negative implications for democratic accountability

19. HOW VOTERS THINK: COMPETING THEORIES • Is the Michigan School argument still relevant today? • Party ID is still acquired through socialization • Attitudes are still acquired via party • Voters still cannot connect party-acquired attitudes to their opinions on specific issues • But voters now possess coherent ideologies, thanks to partisan polarization

20. HOW VOTERS THINK: COMPETING THEORIES • Why do people have consistent ideologies but still cannot connect attitudes to opinions on specific policies? • Party, party, party • Parties have become more polarized; voters follow the lead of party elites, adjust their attitudes to fit the party’s attitudes! • Voters still incapable of applying their attitudes to practical problems without direct guidance • Cognitive dissonance may lead to attitude change but often does not

21. HOW VOTERS THINK: COMPETING THEORIES • Popkin’s Case: Low-Information Rationality • Voters are capable of rational, complex decision-making but operate with low levels of political information • In low-information environments, it is rational to delegate decision-making to a political party • People acquire information shortcuts (cognitive shortcuts) through their party, through the media, etc. that help form a basic narrative about a candidate for office

22. HOW VOTERS THINK: COMPETING THEORIES • Why don’t voters acquire more information? • The media spread misinformation (or no information) • Political elites and party leaders spread misinformation • High media choice makes opting out much easier • High opportunity cost to being well-informed; voters may rationally prioritize other activities, happy to rely on information shortcuts

23. BEHIND THE THEORIES: MEASURING PUBLIC OPINION • Survey Research: • Random samples with a normal distribution (n > 30) • Smaller samples—larger margins of error • Larger samples—less accuracy • Linear or non-linear regression to measure correlation between two or more variables (effect of income and party ID on approval of President Obama)

24. BEHIND THE THEORIES: MEASURING PUBLIC OPINION • Problems with Survey Research: • Non-representative samples and low external validity • Poorly-worded questions • Measurement Error: • Variation in question responses is natural • There is not one possible consistent response to a survey question but rather a distribution of possible responses over time