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Chapter Eight – Thinking and Language R. M. Tolles. Psychology. Concepts. Concepts Category hierarchies prototype. Section 1 – Explain the role that symbols, concepts, and prototypes play as units of thought. What is Thinking?
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Chapter Eight – Thinking and Language R. M. Tolles Psychology
Concepts Concepts Category hierarchies prototype
Section 1 – Explain the role that symbols, concepts, and prototypes play as units of thought What is Thinking? Defined - the mental activity that is involved in the understanding, process, and communicating of information Symbols – an object of an act that stands for something else Concepts – grouping or associating things together for understanding and meaning Organizing things into hierarchies and levels to better understand Prototypes – recalling an item and having an image
Solving ProblemsStrategies Algorithms Step-by-step Heuristic Insight
Section 2 – Describe several methods people use to solve problems, and identify obstacles to problem solving Problem Solving Algorithms and Heuristics Algorithm – specific procedure that, when used properly and in the right circumstances, will lead to the solution of a problem Heuristics – rules of thumb that often lead to a solution - Not always effective - Faster than algorithms, not always right
Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Using and Misusing Heuristics The Representative Heuristic The representativeness heuristic is a form of stereotyping. We judge people according to the likelihood that they fir tour representation of groups to which we feel they should belong.
Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Using and Misusing Heuristics The Availability Heuristic
Problem-Solving Methods Trial and Error Doing something over and over until a solution appears Difference Reduction - identify goals, how you’re related to it, and how to get to that goal (Heuristics method) Means-End Analysis – doing certain things to get certain results (Heuristics Method) Working Backward – working from the result back through to the method Analogies – similarities between things that can be applied to solve a problem
Insight and Incubation Insight – sudden understanding Little conscious awareness of how we achieve the understanding Incubation Effect – when one comes to a solution to a problem without even knowing we were consciously working on the problem
Solving ProblemsCreativity Creativity Strernberg’s five components Expertise Imaginative thinking skills A venturesome personality Intrinsic motivation A creative environment
Solving ProblemsObstacles to Problem Solving Confirmation bias Fixation Mental set Functional fixedness
Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental Set – to try and solve a new problem using a technique that was successful in the past. - Can be helpful, but can also keep people from finding solutions Functional Fixedness – thinking of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually there for. - The object pictured can alter or interfere with finding the solution
Solving ProblemsObstacles to Problem Solving Confirmation bias Fixation Mental set Functional fixedness
Problem Solving and Creativity Convergent thinking - Though is limited to available facts Divergent thinking - one associated more freely to the various elements of a problem ABCDEs of Problem Solving A – Assess the problems B – Brainstorm approaches to the problem C – Choose the approach that seems most likely to work D – Do it, try the most likely approach E – Evaluate the result
Section 3 – Differentiate between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning Reasoning - Defined as the use of information to reach a conclusion Deductive Resoning - Defined as the conclusion is true if the premissess are true - Premiss, an idea or statement that provides the basic information that allows us to draw conclusions. Inductive Reasoning - Defined as reasoning from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion - Confirmation Bias, trying to find information to prove a hypothesis, rather than disprove it.
Section 4 – Analyze the strategies used in decision making Decision Making and Judgment • Weighing the Positives and Negatives • Shortcuts in Decission Making and Judgement
Framing Effect and Overconfidence Framing Effect – refers to the way in which wording affects decision making Overconfidence – being over sure of ones knowledge and answer - People are often unaware of how flimsy their evidence is - Tend to pay attention to examples that confirm their own opinions - People tend to bring about things they believe in - Even when people are told that they tend to be overconfident in their decisions, they usually to not make use of this information
LanguageIntroduction Language
Language DevelopmentExplaining Language Development Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar Language acquisition device Universal grammar Genetic Factors: Ancestral history prepares us for language, fear , etc…
Ethical Issues – “GENIE” Language Threshold Theory? • Is it right to experiment on people? • What limits should there be?
Language StructureGrammar Grammar Semantics Syntax
Section 5 – Identify the basis elements of language and summaries the stages of language development Language Communication of ideas through symbols that are arranged according to rules of grammar Basic Elements of Language Phonemes – basic sounds of language Morpheme – units of meaning in a language Syntax - the way in which words are arranged to make phrases and sentences Semantics – study of meaning, and the different levels of meaning in each sentence
How do we learn Language? Genetic Influences – natural or inborn tendencies to acquire language - Language Acquisition Device – different term for heredity’s influence and its definition - Environmental Influence – environment influence in learning language - Language Threshold Theory Bilingualism – being able to speak two or more languages
Language StructurePhonemes Phoneme English about 40 phonemes Learning another language’s phonemes
Language StructureMorphemes Morpheme Includes prefixes and suffixes
Language DevelopmentWhen Do We Learn Language? Receptive language Productive language Babbling stage One-word stage Two-word stage Telegraphic speech
Stages of Language Development Crying Cooing Babbling Words Development of Grammar Complex structure
Gardner and Gardner: Methodology • Began to train Washoe at the age of 11 months • Training continued for 51 months • Washoe was treated like a deaf human child: lots of toys, routines, plenty of attention • Washoe learned 151 signs during this period
Gardner and Gardner: Results • Washoe learned by: • Having the Gardner’s placing her hands into the correct sign • Observation and imitation • Washoe was able to use her language skills to express emotions Washoe learned to sign “toothbrush”: move the index finger horizontally back and forth across the mouth to simulate brushing
Gardner and Gardner: Results • Washoe eventually learned nearly 250 signs • Gardner’s hypothesis supported
Subsequent Studies on Apes • Koko the gorilla learned 1000 signs and 2000 spoken English words • Chimpanzees can communicate with each other in sign language • Chimpanzees can teach signs to each other
Implications of Ape Language Studies for Humans • We all communicate through gestures as well as words • This may be the way human language originated • May explain why deaf people learn sign language readily
Language DevelopmentExplaining Language Development Skinner: Operant Learning Learning principles Association Imitation Reinforcement
Language DevelopmentExplaining Language Development Statistical Learning and Critical Periods Statistical learning Critical (sensitive) period
Language Influences Thinking Whorf’s linguistic determinism Bilingual advantage
Thinking in Images Implicit memory
