Political Economy, Culture, and Gender

1. Political Economy, Culture, and Gender READING: Finish the textbook.

2. Plan • Report on push-ups • Gender norms • Plowing vs. Shifting • Women • in the labor force • as leaders of private firms • as public leaders in government

3. Collective Action • ~500 push-ups (last year 1,230… previous year 1,951) • The small group (me) wins against the larger group (you) • Individually rational • You avoided embarrassment • What’s my secret? • Do 500 pushups/day for 15 years • Training for life

4. As a symbol of health and wellness, nothing surpasses the simple push-up. “It takes strength to do them, and it takes endurance to do a lot of them,” said Jack LaLanne, 93, the fitness pioneer. The push-up is the ultimate barometer of fitness. It tests the whole body, engaging muscle groups in the arms, chest, abdomen, hips and legs. “Women are at a particular disadvantage because they start off with about 20 percent less muscle than men.” – http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/11/health/nutrition/11well.html

5. Enter: Hoya Francesca Saunders!

6. “Push-ups giving women a bad rep” – by Kelly Mills • “No one is arguing that they are an easy exercise, especially for women • “though the reasons for that are more complex than the simple fact that men have, on average, 20 percent more muscle, and that it is concentrated in the upper body. • “are push-ups a misogynistic tool for assessing fitness? • “Here's a newsflash about why women have a hard time with push-ups: We don't do them. • “You generally have to practice anything to be able to do it. So what if some men start off having an easier time with push-ups? (And, by the way, I know from training experience that plenty of men are not automatic experts.)” • Me: I suspect the bias begins in P.E. class when we’re 10 years old • http://www.icechamber.com/videos/PushupMedley.html • http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/04/04/LVC9VTE6H.DTL

7. Vast cross-societal differences in cultural attitudes about the appropriate roles for women • Reflected in both value-based survey responses & objective measures like female labor force participation • World Values Survey example: • “When jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women” • Proportion of the population that answers “yes”: • Iceland 3.6%, USA 10.6%, Rwanda 28%, Switzerland 35.1%, Japan 60%, Pakistan 79%, Egypt 94.9% • Female labor force participation rates in 2000: • Burundi 93.2%, Tanzania 89.3%, Iceland 83.3%, USA 70.4%, Japan 59%, Italy 46%, Pakistan 30.3%, Egypt 21.5%

8. Why do we have differences in gender norms?

9. USA: http://www.pay-equity.org/t

10. Explanations • Discrimination in the work place • Selection bias • Discrimination in the family: who stays home with the kids • Maximizing family income • Women marry men about 2 years older • Maximizing family income preference the older (higher-income) spouse • http://www.nber.org/chapters/c3685.pdf • http://www.jstor.org/stable/1924218 • http://www.jstor.org/stable/2535190

12. A new explanation

13. The plough (or plow)

16. Versus: Shifting cultivation

18. Principal tools in shifting agriculture: The hoe & digging stick

19. On the Origins of Gender Roles: Women & the Plough Alberto Alesina, Paola Giuliano and Nathan Nunn

20. Boserup’s hypothesis • Certain parts of the world traditionally used plough agriculture • In these places, men had an advantage for work in the field • The person had to pull the plough or control an animal that pulled the plough (neither of which is an easy task) • The use of the plough also leaves little need for weeding, a job in which women almost always specialize (Foster and Rosenzweig, 1996) • Plough agriculture was less compatible with simultaneous child care (Brown, 1970) • Therefore, men tended to work in the field outside of the home, while women worked within the home • Over centuries, the belief that the home was the “normal” or “natural” place for women evolved • These beliefs continue to persist today (even after a movement out of agriculture)

21. Division of labor in agriculture in ancient societies

23. Country-level: Outcomes of interest • Female labor force participation: • Proportion of women in the labor force (employed or seeking employment) • Female representation in positions of power: • Proportion of firm owners/managers that are female • Proportion of seats in national parliament held by women • Control variable: • Log real per capita income, log real per capita income squared

31. Also consider labor force participation of US immigrants • If a woman’s parents come from “traditional-plough-use” countries, participation in labor force is lower • Splitting the effect between having an immigrant mother/father from “plough-country” – which effect is stronger? • Mother • Father

32. Does culture exist? • Yes! • Should be rigorously defined/measured • e.g., Female labor force participation • Should be treated as a dependent variable • Caused by ancient agricultural practices • Then you can think about its effects • If you want to change culture, it is helpful to understand where it comes from • In this case, a history of the plough should bear no relationship with life-choices • There’s nothing “natural” about women working in the home

33. Take aways • Vast cross-societal differences in cultural attitudes about the “appropriate” roles for women • Differences in female participation in the labor force can be explained by • Discrimination in the workplace • Discrimination in the family • Maximizing family-income & age spouse • Culture??? • YES! • Rooted in ancient agricultural practices • Plough-use led to men working in the field, women at home • A view that women belong at home developed and has been handed down generation to generation

34. Thank you