Enhancing Writing Skills: Best Practices & Theories

1. Week 6 Best Practices in Teaching Writing Gambrell, L. B., & Morrow, L. M. (2011). Best Practices in Literacy Instruction, Fourth Edition. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press. All material in the following section is directly quoted from Best Practices in Literacy Instruction unless otherwise noted Benedictine University

2. BEST PRACTICES IN TEACHING WRITING Gambrell, L. B., & Morrow, L. M. (2011). Best Practices in Literacy Instruction, Fourth Edition. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press. All material in the following section is directly quoted from Best Practices in Literacy Instruction unless otherwise noted Benedictine University

3. What Is Writing? • Writing is a complex interaction of cognitive and physical factors: • Writing can be a personal process done solely for oneself or a social process done for and with others Benedictine University

4. Writing Theory • It is important to possess a framework for understanding writing (Cambourne’smodel of learning literacy, 1988) • Cambourne suggests that authentic engagementaccompanied by immersionand demonstrationresult in learning • Students learn to write when they are: • Surrounded with examples and models • Given expectations • Allowed to make decisions and mistakes • Provided feedback • Allowed time to practice in realistic ways Benedictine University

5. Writing Theory • Engagement and relevance are basic to Graves’ (1983,1994) model of the writingprocess that is based on the repetitive steps of: • Planning, drafting, revising,editing, and publishing for a real audience • This process approach to writing is part of a writing workshopformat (Fletcher &Portaluppi, 2001) in which the teacher sets up the structure and allows students plenty of choice about what they write • Atwell’s (1998, 2002) work with middle school students also supports the use of writing process in a writing workshop format Benedictine University

6. Oral Language-Vygotsky • Oral language is an important contributor to writing because both oral language and writing depend on the same cognitive abilities • Vygotsky(1978) theorized that children’s early speech is a precursor to inner speech: • Which in turn results in the ability to think in words • This self-talk is like an inner commentator that develops into a mature writer’s voice Benedictine University

7. Writing: It’s A Social Act! • Vygotsky believed thought and knowledge emerge from oral language that is embedded in social interaction • This co-construction of meaning leads to learning • Thus, when writing is a social act… • It is often stronger because of interactions that occur as students talk and create new meanings together Benedictine University

8. Writing: It’s A Social Act! • Social interaction that occurs around a shared experience is the foundation of the language experience approach • When students talk about an experience and that talk is transcribed, they can then read the written story or report • Young children learn how to write and how to read as a result of the social interaction that is part of the language experience approach Benedictine University

9. Writing: It’s A Social Act! • Middle school students participating in similar substantive discussions or “curricular conversations” that are focused on content • Can strengthen their writing as well as their reading, speaking, and thinking abilities (Angelis, 2003) • This kind of demonstrationand immersionin talking, writing, and reading as students create meaning together is the engagementthat Cambourne(1988) puts at the Heartof all learning! Demonstration + Immersion Benedictine University

10. GRAMMAR INSTRUCTIONIT COULD PRODUCE HARMFUL EFFECTS! • Research shows grammar instruction to have littlepositiveeffect on writing • Studies over time indicate that teaching formal grammar to students has a “negligible or even harmful effect on improving students’ writing” (Routman, 1996, p.119) • In fact, “…a heavy emphasis on mechanics and usage results in significant losses in overall quality” • Thus, the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) published a resolution urgingteachers to discard traditional school grammar instruction (Brozo, 2003) (Hillocks, 1987, p.74) Benedictine University

11. GRAMMAR INSTRUCTIONWhat about Standardized Testing? • However, in a climate of standards-based mandated tests that often requires students to correct errors… • Teachers may need to focus student attention on identifying and correcting errors (Smith, Cheville, &Hillocks, 2006) • Alerting students to the pattern of errors they commit within and across their own writing assignments is one way to focus students’ attention • Using strategies for examining and correcting errors gives teachers and students another window into learning about standard grammar and conventions in writing Benedictine University

12. The Impact Of Spelling on Writing • Research suggests a strong relationship between spelling and writing (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2010) • Good writing depends on the automatic use of spelling skills • When students struggle with spelling, they use up valuable cognitive resources that they might otherwise use for other aspects of writing (Singer & Bashir, 2004) • Students who try to use standard spelling, but do not possess this skill, may labor over every word and use words that they can readily spell rather than words that are more difficult • Thus, accurate and automatic spelling can improve fluency (McCutcheon, 2006), and the quality and length of a written piece is affected, as well as a writer’s confidence Benedictine University

13. WAIT…AND RELATE • Students who try to use standard spelling, but do not possess this skill, may labor over every word and use words that they can readily spell rather than words that are more difficult • How is spelling then related to vocabulary usage? Benedictine University

14. Writing Conventions • Moats (2005-2006) calls for automatic knowledge of spelling and other conventions. Her position is: • “Even more than reading, writing is a mental juggling act that depends on automatic deployment of basic skills such as handwriting, spelling, grammar, and punctuation so that the writer can keep track of such concerns as topic, organization, word choice, and audience needs” • While grammar checkers may find grammatical problems and spell checkers may correct misspellings of commonly used words • These devices do not catch all errors, and students still must know standard grammar and spelling • Knowledge of conventions is important whether students write with pencil and paper or use a computer and word processor Benedictine University

15. Good News About the Computer! • Berninger and Winn (2006) report that students can become metacognitively aware of their own thinking and may produce better writing when they use a word processor • Due to the computer’s ability to change some spelling and correct some grammar for the student • Baker (2000) found that word processors eased the difficulties many young children have with fine motor control and helped them better understand revision • Baker also found that, through student interaction with the Internet and the digital world, their writing abilities improved • Students found support for their writing efforts, increased their awareness of audience, and gained useful feedback Benedictine University

16. WRITING: Boys vs. Girls • Research on gender differences in the writing of elementary and middle school students is striking • On standardized writing tests, girls in the fourth, eighth, and twelfth grades consistently outperformed boys in narrative, persuasive, and informative writing (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002; nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pubs/) Benedictine University

17. WRITING: Boys vs. Girls BOYS GIRLS Writing is action filled Writing is competitive Writing is assertive Write in 1st Person Write shorter pieces Writing is nurturing Writing focuses on domestic topics Write in 3rd Person Write longer pieces with more adjectives More Confident Viewed as better writers by both boys and girls Benedictine University

18. Learning Disabilities • Students with learning disabilities possess more limited metacognitive awareness of the knowledge, skills, and strategies necessary to be good writers (Troia, 2006) • Writing instruction that incorporates self-monitoring, goal setting, and self-evaluation is important for these students • These students often: • Skip the planning stage • Have problems generating and transcribing ideas • Do not revise their work • These students with learning disabilities need: • More time for writing • Intensive, individualized and explicit instruction in self-regulation skills and writing strategies (Troia, 2006) Benedictine University

19. A Process vs. Skills-Product Approach • Mandated assessments, higher standards, and accountability issues cause some teachers to: • Reduce time for writing • Teach writing artificially • Fragment the curriculum (Strickland et al.,2001) • In some classrooms, the focus is away from the writing process and towardwriting skills and the writtenproduct • Proponents of a process approach to writing instruction are criticized for overlooking direct instruction, conventions, and legibility • Askills-product approach is criticized for its teacher centeredness and tendency to overlook student motivation, purpose, and voice • Good writers need simultaneous opportunities to engage in the processand to learn the skills of writing Benedictine University

20. Structure & Freedom • A 10-year study of students from third grade to high school graduation was conducted by Casey and Hemenway(2001) • They found that a balance between structure and freedom results in “more dynamic writers excited about their abilities” (p.68) • Their study suggests that instruction that is intentional, socially interactive and authentic builds a bridge between structure and freedom that supports good writing Benedictine University

21. BEST PRACTICES IN WRITING Three areas should be included in a best practices writing program: • Context for Writing • Intentional Writing Instruction • Writing Assessment Benedictine University

22. CONTEXT FOR WRITING EDUC 622 CH. 12-BROMLEY Benedictine University

23. CONTEXT FOR WRITING • A contextor environmentfor writing that includes individual, physical, and social aspects that affect instruction is critical to best-practices instruction • The individual teacher’s attitude and commitment are critical! • For example, when teachers identify and commit to improving student writing as a school-wide goal, the focus of professional development efforts can be on writing • Teachers can… • Study writing • Have conversations about students’ writing • Analyze writing tests and test results to see what students do and don’t do • Develop writing curricula • Create a vision of exemplary student performance and specify criteria for it Benedictine University

24. CONTEXT FOR WRITING • A starting point for teaching writing well is to examine present practices with questions like these: • What choices do my students have in their writing? • How much and what kind of writing do they do daily? • Who do my students write for besides me? What other audiences do they have? • Who gives students feedback on their writing? • Are they writing in a variety of formats in all content areas? • How do I use the writing process? What kind of direct instruction do I provide? • What opportunities do I provide students to use word processors and e-mail? Benedictine University

25. SELF-EVALUATION • Self-evaluation is important because it encourages students to take responsibility for their own writing progress • Periodic self-evaluation with questions like these also helps students reflect and set goals for themselves: • What do I do well as a writer? • What is one thing I have learned most recently as a writer? • What do I need to learn to be a better writer? Benedictine University

26. WRITING WORKSHOP • Writing workshops should include: • Mini-lessons • Work time for writing • Peer conferring and/or response groups • Share sessions • Publication celebrations (Calkins, 1994) • Spend an hour a day in writing workshops that include a brief lesson on a demonstrated need of a group of students (Atwell, 1998, 2002 and Fletcher and Portaluppi, 2001) Benedictine University

27. LITERATURE IN WRITING • Spend time sharing and discussing a well-written piece of literature to help students improve their writing and learn to respond to a piece of work • Integrate writing with content-area learning so students are writing to learn as they are learning to write Benedictine University

28. What About ELLs? • Encourage buddy reading, discussion, and collaborative writing • This is particularly helpful for students who may have ideas to contribute but who may not yet have the language skills, motivation, or confidence to write without this stimulation • Working in pairswith students who possess strong skills supports and encourages students who are learning English and those who struggle to develop their abilities Benedictine University

29. A WRITING COMMUNITY • Establishing a writing community in the classroom and school builds a social context and improves student writing • Calling students “authors” and “writers” can have a positive effect on how students view themselves, and on whether and how they write • Posting the writing of every student in the class validates (and motivates) them as writers as well • Inviting authors and illustrators of children’s books to share their work with students can nudge even the most reluctant writer to write • The entire school can study the work of an author before a visit so students know the author’s style and content and can interact in substantive ways with him or her Benedictine University

30. INTENTIONAL WRITING INSTRUCTION EDUC 622 CH. 12-BROMLEY Benedictine University

31. INTENTIONAL WRITING • Writers need direct intentional instructionin writing as well as time to write (Tompkins, 2007) • Students must learn how to use the traits of writing effectively: • Ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, conventions, and presentation (Culham, 2003) • They need opportunities for enough instruction, guidance, and practice to allow them to become accomplished • Good writing teachers balance writing process and product as they celebrate and encourage clarity of meaning, creativity, and standard English • NCTE promotes teaching standard conventions and correctness by having students edit their own writing (Brozo, 2003) Benedictine University

32. INTENTIONAL WRITING • Alternatives to isolated grammar instruction include: • Teaching grammar during writing instruction • Having grammar debates • Teaching students to use style manuals • Creating assignments that require writing for real audiences • Studying grammar controversies (Dunn & Lindblom, 2003) • Teachers must… • Engage students in the writing process • Teach and discuss word usage • Teach students to construct sentences using their own work • Students can learn to use grammar and improve their writing Benedictine University

33. INTENTIONAL WRITING Incorporate direct instruction into composing and the conventions of grammar, spelling, form, and handwriting into writing workshops (Peterson, 2000) • Teaching terms like purpose, audience, form, voice, noun, verb, and adjective gives students a common vocabulary for discussing and improving their writing • Sentence construction, grammar, and usage make sense to students when they are writing for a real audience • “Fix-the-error exercises” teach specific grammar skills with examples from real literature with which students are familiar (Kane, 1997) Benedictine University

34. INTENTIONAL WRITING • A mini-lesson is an effective way for teachers to share a piece of writing as a model to demonstrate what good writing looks and sounds like (Calkins, 1994; McElveen & Dierking, 2001) • Reading and listening to literature also helps students think like writers and write with an audience in mind • Good narrative and expository writing lets students see how an author holds readers’ attention and uses conventions • Students then begin to use this knowledge in their own writing • Writing teachers need to be writers themselves Benedictine University

35. GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS • Graphic organizers: • Are visual representations of information that show relationships and contain key vocabulary • They make excellent planning tools for writing (Bromley, 2006; Irwin-DeVitis, Bromley, & Modlo, 1999) • Appear on many mandated tests, thus making it important that even young students learn to use them • Support inquiry through visual clues • Are particularly useful for students learning English or those with learning disabilities in literacy because: • They simplify information • Use key words • Help organize ideas before writing Benedictine University

36. WRITING ASSESSMENT EDUC 622 CH.12-BROMLEY Benedictine University

37. WRITING ASSESSMENT • Writing instruction has improved dramatically over the past several decades • Much of this improvement can be attributed to better writing assessments that inform more effective writing instruction • Of course, not all writing needs formal assessment but, whether formal or informal, assessment should be ongoing • Portfolios, rubrics, and checklists offer opportunities for writing assessment by both students and teachers • Students often keep their writing in all its stages in writing folders or portfolios • This collection of work creates a record of student progress and can show a student’s growth as a writer Benedictine University

38. YOUNG WRITERS • Just saying “Great job!” or “Need to improve” does not help young students know how to be better writers • Young students need feedback on the important aspects of communicating effectively, and a basic checklist or rubric can provide this feedback • See Figures 12.1 and 12.2 on p. 308-309 in Best Practices in Literacy Instruction • More sophisticated rubrics are appropriate for older students Benedictine University

39. PEER ASSESSMENT • Peers can assess one another’s written work and provide feedback • In addition to conferencing with students one-on-one, use peer conferences to give students real and immediate audience feedback on their work • When students read his/her work to a peer or hears it read to him/her, the student can more easily discover what to revise • Use a checklist when conferencing with students during writing workshops to more effectively and consistently assess and improve writing Benedictine University

40. SELF ASSESSMENT • Along with writing portfolios, rubrics, checklists, peer feedback, and conferencing • Students must become accurate in self-assessment • Students must regularly ask questions about their writing • Self-assessment should be ongoing because students improve as writers when they regularly examine their work with an eye toward making it more organized, fluent, and clear Benedictine University

41. CONCLUSIONS • Ongoing technology and the digital world continue to transform writing • Writing practices in classrooms of the future will need to reflect the roles that the internet, computers and smart devices increasingly play in writing that occurs out of school and at work • The “new” literacies of e-mail, text messaging, and Twitter do not always conform to standard grammar, spelling, or punctuation, however… • Students must still possess basic skills in the conventions of standard English in order to succeed in many aspects of the adult world Benedictine University

42. CONCLUSIONS • Accountability, mandates, and tests will undoubtedly continue to affect what and how writing is taught • Teachers must therefore be: • Flexible • Open to collaboration with others • Creative in blending out-of-school literacies with in-school writing • Research is needed that examines technology, writing, and best-practices instruction for increasingly diverse classrooms • We must fundamentally understand what ‘sound’ instructionlooks like for students who differ in cultural, ethnic, language, learning backgrounds, and gender Benedictine University