Geography GCSE

1. Geography GCSE PAPER 1 Final preparation revision notes.

2. NATURAL HAZARDS

3. 1. What is the definition of a natural hazard. 2. Name at least six natural hazards. Categorise each one as atmospheric, geological or flooding hazard? A natural event that has a huge SOCIAL impact where people and their activities are affected. Volcanic eruptions – geological Drought - atmospheric Earthquakes – geological Tropical storms - atmospheric Landslides – geological Floods - flooding 3. Name and describe the four factors that affect hazard risk. HAZARD RISK is the chance or probability of being affected by a natural event. These factors have led to an increase in the number of people at risk: Urbanisation – people living in densely populated urban areas. Poverty – people may be forced to live in risk prone areas such as unstable slopes. Climate change – may lead to more intense storms, hurricanes, flooding, drought and famine. Farming – people living on flood prone floodplains to use the fertile soils.

4. TECTONIC HAZARDS

5. 1. Name the four layers of the earth. 2. The crust is broken into sections known as tectonic plates. Explain why they move. Crust, mantle, outer core, inner core. Plates move in relation to each other due to convection (heat) currents from deep within the Earth. 3. Name the two types of crust. Which one is thin and dense and which one is thick and less dense? . There are two types of crust: Oceanic crust – dense and thin. Continental crust – less dense and thick. 4. What is the definition of an earthquake? . An earthquake is a sudden and violent period of ground shaking.

6. 5. Explain where earthquakes and volcanoes happen. (Give real examples of plate margins where earthquakes and volcanoes happen and explain why sometimes there are exceptions. Use the terms plate margin, human activity, ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, oceanic crust and hot spots). Earthquakes mainly occur at the margins of tectonic plates, where plates are moving and enormous pressures build up and are released. This happens, for example, along the edge of the Pacific Plate. Some earthquakes happen away from plate boundaries as a result of human activity like mining. Volcanoes happen in long belts along the edge of plate margins, for example, along the edge of the Pacific Plate known as the ‘Ring of Fire’ and through the middle of the Atlantic Ocean known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge including Iceland. Volcanoes are fed from the magma rising up to the surface at constructive and destructive plate boundaries. They can also form at hot spots where the crust is thin and magma can break through. The islands of Hawaii are an example of this. 6. Describe the physical processes that take place at a constructive (transform) plate margin (you must give an example of a real volcano, what type it is and the features it has and the names of the plates which are moving to form it). Two plates move apart. For example at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where the North American and Eurasian Plates are moving apart. The magma is very hot and fluid and will flow a long way before cooling down forming a broad shield volcano. Pyrill in Iceland is an example of this.

7. 7. Describe the physical processes that take place at a destructive plate margin (you must give an example of a real volcano, what type it is and the features it has and the names of the plates, which are moving to form it, as well as stating that due to this type of movement, earthquakes also occur). The plates move towards each other. If one plate is oceanic and one is continental a deep ocean trench may form where the oceanic plate which is denser is subducted beneath the less dense continental plate. As the oceanic plate sinks it melts creating thick and slow moving magma. When this rises and breaks through to the surface it creates steep sided composite volcanoes. Eruptions can be violent and explosive and the whole process creates earthquakes due to high amounts of friction. An example is the Nazca Plate (oceanic) sinking beneath the South American Plate (continental) which have created the Peru-Chile trench. If both plates are continental they crumple and uplift creating fold mountains. 8. Describe the physical processes that take place at a conservative plate margin (you must give an example of a real conservative plate boundary where earthquakes occur). Two plates are moving past each other. Friction between the plates causes earthquakes. An example of this is where the fast moving Pacific Plate is sliding past the slower North American Plate creating the San Andreas Fault. Earthquakes along here tend to be strong and shallow so very destructive. There is no magma to form volcanoes.

8. 9. Explain why the effects and responses to tectonic hazards like volcanoes and earthquakes vary between countries of contrasting levels of wealth. A range of factors can influence effects and responses such as quality of housing, the state of the emergency services, levels of infrastructure, presence of warning systems and levels of prediction technology, education levels and public awareness and attitudes. 10. Examples of tectonic events in countries at different levels of wealth. A3 CASE STUDY SHEET/ FLASHCARD ACTIVITY CHILE. Can I give details of the primary and secondary effects and immediate and long-term responses of a tectonic event in a HIC? A3 CASE STUDY SHEET/ FLASHCARD ACTIVITY NEPAL. Can I give details of the primary and secondary effects and immediate and long-term responses of a tectonic event in a LIC?

9. 11. Give a range of reasons (at least 6) why people continue to live in areas atrisk from tectonic hazards. Long times between events mean people don’t see the threat. People living in poverty worry more about other issues. Volcanoes can bring benefits such as fertile soil and rocks for building. Fault lines can create water supply where water rises to the surface. Better building design means people feel less at risk. Some people may not be aware of the risks involved in living close to a plate margin. 12. Explain why people in Iceland consider the risks to themselves are low, and what benefits they get from living in a tectonically active country. Iceland lies on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Effective scientific monitoring mean people see the risk levels as low. Benefits brought by living on this plate margin include natural hot water, rocks supply the construction industry, tourism provides significant income, geothermal energy is used to heat homes, water and swimming pools.

10. 13. Describe how monitoring, prediction, protection and planning can reduce the risk from both volcanoes and earthquakes. Monitoring Volcanoes warning signs allow close monitoring using high tech equipment. This includes remote sensing, seismicity, ground deformation, gas and hydrology measurements. Earthquakes scientists have yet to discover reliable ways to monitor earthquakes. Prediction Volcanoes the information from the monitoring is used to try to make accurate predictions. Earthquakes lack of clear warning signs make this impossible. Protection Volcanoes the power of eruptions means there is often little that can be done. However lava flows can be diverted using earth embankments or explosives. Earthquakes it is possible to try to design buildings and bridges to resist the ground shaking such as with reinforced walls, shock absorbers, automatic shutters on windows and rolling weights on the roof. Regular drills can help people be prepared and tsunami walls can be built on coasts. Planning Volcanoes hazard maps can be used to restrict and warn people of risky areas. Earthquakes maps can be used to see if vulnerable areas and buildings such as hospitals and reservoirs might be affected.

11. WEATHER HAZARDS

12. 1. Describe how global atmospheric circulation influences our weather and climate across the world. This is about the circular movement of a number of cells which drive global weather, creating hot and wet tropics, hot and dry deserts and the wet UK. These cells all join together to form the circulation of our atmosphere. Air moving towards the ground creates high pressure. Wind blow away from these areas. Air rising creates low pressure. Wind moves towards these areas. Surface winds transfer heat and moisture from one plate to another. Wind moving between high and low pressure is distorted by the rotation of the Earth. Seasonal changes cause changes in pressure during summer and winter. Cells include the Hadley cells either side of the equator, Ferrel cells between the tropics and polar regions and the Polar cells. 2. Define the term tropical storm. This is a huge storm that develops in the tropics. They are incredibly powerful. Known by different names across the world. Hurricanes (USA and Caribbean). Cyclones (south-east Asia and Australia. Typhoons (Japan and the Philippines).

13. 3. Where do tropical storms, (typhoons, cyclones and hurricanes) happen?4. Describe the conditions needed for a tropical storm to form. Over warm oceans above 27⁰c. They form in the summer ant autumn when sea temperatures are high. Most form 5 - 15⁰ north or south of the Equator where there is enough spin. These tropical regions have enough intense heat to cause unstable air to rapidly rise. 5. Describe the sequence of the formation of a tropical storm.

14. 6. Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure and features of a tropical storm.

15. 7. 7. Describe how climate change might cause a change in the distribution (spread), frequency (how often) and intensity (strength) of tropical storms. The current area where tropical storms happen may grow as climate change leads to more water above 27⁰c. There are some computer models that suggest the frequency might stay similar or even decrease but the intensity might increase as surface temperatures increase. More data will need to be viewed to make solid conclusions. 8. Example of the impact of a tropical storm on people and the environment. A3 CASE STUDY SHEET/ FLASHCARD ACTIVITY TYPHOON HAIYAN. Can I give details of the primary and secondary effects and immediate and long-term responses of a tropical storm? 9. Describe how monitoring, prediction, protection and planning can reduce the risk from tropical storms. . Monitoring and prediction technology has allowed this to happen accurately and effectively. Two levels of warning are issued by the National Hurricane Centre in Miami: hurricane watch (advice) and hurricane warning (take action). Protection – cyclone shelters can be built, storm drains to take away water, sea walls. Planning – people will continue to live in harms way due to fishing and tourism so awareness of what to do needs to be raised through drills and education.

16. 10. What is the difference between the term weather and climate? 11. Identify (name) at least 5 types of extreme weather experienced by the UK. Weather is the day to day conditions such as temperature, cloud cover, wind speed and direction. Climate is measured as an average over a long time (often 30 years). Thunderstorms Heavy snow and extreme cold Prolonged rainfall Strong winds Drought and extreme heat 12. Example of a recent extreme weather event in the UK. A3 CASE STUDY SHEET/ FLASHCARD ACTIVITY THE SOMERSET LEVELS FLOODS OF 2014. Can I give details of the causes, SEE impacts and future management strategies? 13. Explain why some people think that extreme weather events are on the increase in the UK. The frequency of events, especially since the year 2000 indicates an increase in extreme weather events. This is a pattern matched in other parts of the world. Scientists believe this may be linked to a warming world. More energy in the atmosphere and changes to global atmospheric circulation may also bring more extreme events.

17. CLIMATE CHANGE

18. 1. What evidence to de have to show that climate change has taken place since the Quaternary period (the last 2.6 million years)? Average global temperature figures for the last 2.6 million years shows a period of gradual cooling. The cold phases or spikes are known as glacial periods and warmer spikes as inter-glacial periods.The last few decades show average temperature has increased compared to the figures from 1901 – 2000. This warming is now called ‘global warming’ and has been happening since the 1970’s to today. Past data is extracted from ice cores. Thermometers have been used from 1910 onwards. 2. What resent (present day) evidence do we have for climate change? Shrinking glaciers and melting ice. Rising sea levels. Seasonal changes. 3. Name the three natural causes of climate change. Changes to the Earth’s orbit (Milankovitch Cycles). Variations in heat output from the sun. Volcanic activity.

19. 4. Describe the human causes of climate change. (You must refer to the greenhouse effect and the human sources of greenhouse gases). Many of the scientists believe that humans are at least partly to blame for recent rapid rise in temperatures. Like a greenhouse our atmosphere allows short wave radiation from the sun to pass straight through it and warm our Earth. The heat given off by Earth (long wave radiation) can be absorbed by gases such as carbon dioxide and methane. These are therefore known as greenhouse gases. This process is essential for making sure Earth is not too cold for life to exist. However in recent years, people have increased the amounts of greenhouse gases through car exhausts, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, farming and power production. This is known as the enhanced greenhouse effect. 5. Suggest some ways in which climate change might have an impact on people and the environment. UK negative impacts: sea level rise and flooding, ski resorts lost in Scotland, pressure on water supplies in summer. UK positive impacts: grow our own oranges and grapes, reduce heating costs. World negative impacts: more intense tropical storms, species such as polar bears impacted, rise in tropical diseases such as Malaria. World positive impacts: less energy consumption, longer growing seasons, frozen areas able to grow crops such as parts of Canada.

20. 6. Describe at least three ways in which we can mitigate (reduce the causes) of climate change. Using alternative energy sources such as hydro electricity, nuclear power and solar and wind tides. Carbon capture is technology designed to capture CO² as it is produced in power stations which burn coal. The gas is collected and compressed then injected into a well which stores the gas underground in rock reservoirs. Planting trees creates carbon sinks which absorb CO². Trees also release moisture which can create clouds and give a cooling effect. 7. Describe at least three ways in which we can adapt (respond to) climate change. Managing water supply so that water is available during droughts, for example by collecting snow melt in the Himalayas and storing the water. Managing rising sea levels so that people in flood risk areas are more protected for example constructing sea walls in the Maldives. Adapting farming practices to ensure crops still grow such as using drought resistant crops, collecting rainwater and using trees to shade crops in the Gambia.

21. ECOSYSTEMS

22. 1. What is an ecosystem? 2. Define each of these words: A natural system made up of plants, animals and the environment. Biotic – living parts Abiotic – non living parts Producer – converts energy from the sun through photosynthesis e.g. pond plants like reeds. Consumer – get energy from the producers e.g. pond snail. Decomposer - break down plant and animal material and return nutrients to the soil e.g. fungi. Food chain – the links between producers and consumers (shown as a line). Food web – shows all of the connections between producers and consumers (shown as a web). Nutrient cycling – when decomposers return nutrients to the soil they are then available again for the growth of plants or animals. 3. What can cause change to ecosystems? Global scale changes such as climate change Local scale changes , such as changes to a habitat, like removing a hedge. All of these changes are linked to human activity. Only one component needs to be changed for there to be knock-on effects on the rest of the ecosystem.

23. 4. Example of a small- scale ecosystem. A3 CASE STUDY SHEET/ FLASHCARD ACTIVITY AVINGTON PARK LAKE. Can I give details of the changes and features of the lake as well as what would happen if one part of the lakes ecosystem changed? 5. Name the eight major global ecosystems. Tropical rainforests Desert Polar Forests Temperate grasslands Mediterranean Tropical grasslands Tundra

24. TROPICAL RAINFORESTS

25. 1. Where do we find the world’s major tropical rainforests? Tropical rainforests are found in a broad belt across the tropics in: Central and South America South East Asia Central Africa Northern Australia 2. Describe the physical characteristics of tropical rainforests (climate, soil, plants and animals). Temperature is high and constant throughout the year due to the powerful overhead sun. Rainfall is high due to the low pressure and varies through the year. The called latosol is infertile as the nutrients are mostly found on the surface of the ground. Heavy rain washes away nutrients in a process called leaching. The largest number of plant and animal species live in the rainforests (over half of all in the world). This means the rainforests have high biodiversity. 3. Name the layers of the tropical rainforests. Emergent layer Canopy Under canopy Shrub layer/forest floor

26. 4. Describe at least two ways in which plants have adapted to rainforest conditions. 5. What does the term biodiversity mean? Why are biodiversity levels in rainforests under threat? Drip tips allow heavy rain to drip of the leaves. Buttresses help support the base of the tallest trees. Biodiversity is the number of species of plants and animals in an ecosystem. The high levels in the rainforests are under threat due to the impacts of deforestation. 6. Name seven causes of deforestation. Logging Road building Energy development Mineral extraction Population pressure Commercial farming Subsistence farming

27. 7. Name three impacts of deforestation. Soil erosion Loss of biodiversity Contribution to climate change 8. Example of the environmental and economic impacts of deforestation. A3 CASE STUDY SHEET/ FLASHCARD ACTIVITY DEFORESTATION IN MALAYSIA. Can I give details of the causes and impacts on the economy and climate? 9. How are rates of deforestation changing? Every two seconds an area the size of a football field is cleared. Rates are fastest in Brazil and Indonesia. Brazils deforestation is however, starting to slow down as it cuts illegal logging and improves conservation. Indonesia’s rate of deforestation is increasing. 10. Name at least seven reasons why tropical rainforests need protecting. Biodiversity, medicine, resources, water supply, indigenous people (like the Achuar pride fighting against oil companies for their land), local climate preservation, global climate change reduction.

28. 11. Describe a range of strategies used to manage rainforests sustainably (at least six strategies). Managing rainforests sustainable means ensuring the rainforests last for future generations and allowing them to be used now but without causing long term damage. Strategies: Selective logging – cutting down on only the trees you need instead of all of them Conservation and education – setting up nature reserves or national parks. Ecotourism – using the forest to earn money from tourism and putting the money back into the community. International agreements – countries working together to protect forests and reduce Carbon Dioxide levels. Hardwood forestry – the FSC (Forestry Commission) helps to support replanting and reduce demand for rarer, less frequently found trees. Debt reduction – stopping countries from cutting down forest to make money or pay back loans by reducing debt in return for an agreement to stop deforestation, known as debt-for nature-swapping.

29. HOT DESERTS

30. 1. Where do we find hot deserts? 2. Describe the physical characteristics of hot deserts (climate, soil, plants and animals). 3. Describe at least two ways in which plants and animals have adapted to hot desert conditions. Areas with 250mm or less rain a year are found in dry, continental areas away from the coast, in a belt 30°N and 30°S of the Equator. High air pressure leads to a lack of rain and cloud, creating hot days and freezing cold nights. Plants adapt by having thin leaves or spines to reduce water loss and long roots to reach underground water such as the cactus. Animals tend to be nocturnal to avoid daytime heat and/or have waterproof skin to retain water. Camels have many adaptations. 4. Name four opportunities in hot deserts. Mineral extraction, tourism, energy, farming. 5. Name three challenges in a hot desert. Extreme temperature, water supply, accessibility.

31. 6. Example of development in a hot desert. A3 CASE STUDY SHEET/ FLASHCARD ACTIVITY THE THAR DESERT. Can I give details of the challenges and opportunities? 7. What is desertification? This is where land is gradually turned into desert, usually on the edge of an existing desert by wind, soil or water erosion. 8. Describe the causes of desertification (at least 6 causes). Drought (natural cause) – reduced rainfall makes soil drier. Overgrazing and over cultivation (poor land management) – farming animals, cutting down trees for firewood and growing crops with no break affect the soil. Population pressure – more people overgrazing and cultivating. Climate change – drier conditions and unreliable rainfall. Population growth – increased demand for fuelwood.

32. 9. Describe the strategies used to manage desertification (at least three strategies). Management needs to be sustainable – you can’t stop people from farming, keeping animals and collecting fuelwood if they need to survive. These activities need to be managed instead. Strategies: Water and soil management: irrigate land using underground water supplies, ponding banks or contour traps to keep the land moist. Creating national parks where human activities leading to deforestation ore banned. Planting trees – roots bind soil and the leaves shade the land. Appropriate technology – ‘Magic stones’ to build stone walls and catch rain water.

33. 9. Describe the strategies used to manage desertification (at least three strategies). Management needs to be sustainable – you can’t stop people from farming, keeping animals and collecting fuelwood if they need to survive. These activities need to be managed instead. Strategies: Water and soil management: irrigate land using underground water supplies, ponding banks or contour traps to keep the land moist. Creating national parks where human activities leading to deforestation ore banned. Planting trees – roots bind soil and the leaves shade the land. Appropriate technology – ‘Magic stones’ to build stone walls and catch rain water.

34. THE UK’S RELIEF AND LANDSCAPE

35. 1. What does the word relief mean? Relief describes the physical features of the landscape including height above sea level, steepness of slopes and shape of the landscape. 1. What is the landscape of the UK like? The UK’s landscape is varied due to its many rock types. One key feature is our extensive river system flowing from our mountains and hills.

36. COASTS

37. 1. What creates waves and what is fetch? Waves are formed by the wind blowing over the sea. Friction on the surface of the water created by the wind generates waves. The distance the wind blows across the water (distance the wave travels) is called fetch. 2. What happens as waves approach the coast? Water moving up the beach is called swash. Water moving down the beach is called backwash.

38. 3. Name and describe the differences between the two types of waves. 4. Describe how mechanical and chemical weathering break down rock. Cliffs collapse because of different types of weathering. Mechanical weathering such as freeze thaw weathering is where rocks are broken apart. In this case water gets into cracks in the rock and expands when it freezes overnight. Chemical weathering is where chemical changes in the rock cause it to dissolve such as by carbonation where acidic rainwater with a high CO°2 concentration dissolves alkaline rocks such as chalk and limestone. 5. What are the three main types of mass movement? Rockfalls Landslides Mudflows (note: for grade 7 and above know rotational slip as a fourth example).

39. 6. Describe the following processes of erosion: hydraulic power, abrasion and attrition. Hydraulic power: waves smash into cliffs forcing air in gaps further back into the cliff, causing it to break apart. Abrasion: the ‘sandpaper’ effect of rocks in the water grinding on cliffs. Attrition: Rocks in the sea, crash against each other, making each other smaller and rounder. 7. Name the four types of coastal transport. Solution, suspension, saltation, traction. 8. Draw a labelled diagram to show how the transport process known as ‘longshore drift’ works.

40. 9. Explain how geological structure and rock type influence coastal landforms. Some rocks are tougher and more resistant than others such as granite, limestone and chalk. Softer rocks such as clay are more easily eroded. Some rocks have cracks called faults which are significant lines of weakness. 10. The following landforms are formed by coastal erosion: Choose one and draw a labelled diagram of its formation: headlands and bays/ cliff and wave cut platform/ caves, arches, stacks and stumps. Make sure you fully develop labels and refer to processes

42. 11. The following landforms are formed by coastal deposition: choose one and draw a labelled diagram of how it is formed: beaches/sand dunes/spits/bars.

44. 12. Example of a section of UK coastline and its major landforms A3 CASE STUDY SHEET/ FLASHCARD ACTIVITY SWANAGE. Can I give details of the types of rocks and range of landforms found along the Swanage coast?

45. 13. Describe the costs and benefits of each of the following hard engineering management strategies: sea walls, rock armour, gabions and groynes. Hard engineering is using artificial structures to control natural processes. Sea walls: concrete or rock barrier with a curve to deflect waves back out to sea. Cost: £5000 - £10,000 per square metre. Advantages: very effective Disadvantages: cost, high maintenance, spoil look of landscape. Rock armour: piles of large rocks and boulders on which waves break absorbing energy. Cost: £200 000 per 100m Advantages: Relatively cheap, easy to maintain, can create habitats in between boulders. Disadvantages: rocks often transported long distance, look out of place of not local rock type. Gabions: wire cages filled with rocks that act as a buffer against the sea. Cost: up to £50 000 per 100m Advantages: Cheap and flexible, can improve cliff drainage, can become vegetated. Disadvantages: look unattractive until covered in plants, cages rust after 5 – 10 years. Groynes: timber or rock structures built out into the sea to prevent longshore drift and make beaches wider. Cost: £150,000 each Advantages: create wider beach for tourists, not too expensive. Disadvantages: can increase erosion further along the coast, can look very unnatural.

46. 14. Describe the costs and benefits of each of the following soft engineering management strategies: beach nourishment, beach profiling and dune management. Soft engineering is less intrusive, more environmentally friendly methods that work with nature. Beach nourishment: adding sand to an existing beach to make it higher or wider. Cost: £500 000 per 100m. Advantages: blends in with existing beach, increases tourism potential. Disadvantages: needs constant amounts of sand. Beach profiling: same as beach nourishment. Dune management: this can be regenerating dunes which includes growing grass in the dunes to stabilise them or dune fencing to help protect existing dunes. Cost: regeneration (£200 to £2000 per 100m), fencing (£400 - £2000 per 100m) Advantages: natural methods popular with people and wildlife. Disadvantages: can be time consuming, people don’t always like being fenced out of beach areas, can be damaged by storms as made of natural materials, regular maintenance needed. 15. Describe the costs and benefits of each of managed realignment (you can refer to Medmerry). This involved allowing the sea to flood a low value area of land and is a type of soft engineering. This is the most sustainable option as it avoids spending large amounts of money and is less affected by climate change. Benefits: cost effective, creates natural saltmarsh habitats, protects higher value land close by, wildlife encourages tourism in the area. Costs: some people argue it feels like doing nothing or giving in and that there are hidden costs like rehoming people in flooded areas and paying farmers compensation for loss of land.

47. 16. Example of a coastal management scheme in the UK. A3 CASE STUDY SHEET/ FLASHCARD ACTIVITY LYME REGIS. Can I give details of the reasons of the management, the strategies used, the results and the conflict the with some of the local people?

48. RIVERS

49. 1. Define each of the key terms shown in the drainage basin diagram. Watershed – the edge of a river basin. Mouth – the end of a river, usually where a river joins the sea. Source – the start of a river. Confluence – where a tributary joins a large river. Tributary – a small stream that joins a large river. 2. Describe how the long profile of a river changes downstream.

50. 3. Describe how the cross profile of a river changes downstream.