Psychology

1. Psychology Human Development

2. Developmental Psychology • How we change over our life spans physically, mentally and emotionally. • Concerned with how and why different aspects of human functioning develop and change across the life span. • Physical development, such as changes in height and weight and the acquisition of motor skills • Cognitive development, such as changes in thought processes, memory, and language abilities • Personality and Social Development, such as changes in self concept and interpersonal relationships.

3. Developmental Psychology • Two central questions in Developmental Psychology are: • (1) How do biological factors(‘nature’) interact with environmental experiences (‘nurture’) to determine the course of development? • (2) Is development best understood as a continuous process of change or as a series of qualitatively distinct stages?

4. From Womb to Tomb • Periods of Development • Prenatal Period • Infancy • Early Childhood • Middle and Late Childhood • Adolescence • Early Adulthood • Middle Adulthood • Late Adulthood

5. From Womb to Tomb • Prenatal Development • Is concerned with the process in which a human embryo or fetus gestates during pregnancy, from fertilization until birth. • How is Prenatal Development related to Developmental Psychology? • Things or actions that had happened in the course of Prenatal Development, whether advantageous or disadvantageous, has certain effects or consequences to the whole Development process of a child.

6. From Womb to Tomb

7. From Womb to Tomb • Infancy • The developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 months. • A time of extreme dependency on adults. • Many psychological activities are just beginning.

8. From Womb to Tomb • Visual Cliff Experiment • The visual cliff apparatus was created by psychologists Eleanor J. Gibson and R.D. Walk at Cornell university to investigate depth perception in human and animal species.

9. From Womb to Tomb • Early Childhood • The developmental period extending from the end of infancy to about 5 to 6 years. • Often called the “preschool years” • Children learn to become more self-sufficient, develop school readiness skills and play with peers.

10. From Womb to Tomb • Middle and Late Childhood • The developmental period extending from about 6 to 11 years of age. • Approximately corresponds to the elementary school years. • Fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are mastered. • Child is formally exposed to larger world and its culture.

11. From Womb to Tomb • Adolescence • The developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood – entered at 10 to 12 years, ending at 18 to 22 years. • Begins with rapid physical changes. • Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent. • Thought is now more logical, abstract, and idealistic.

12. From Womb to Tomb

13. From Womb to Tomb • Early adulthood • The developmental period beginning in the late teens or early twenties and lasting through the thirties. • A time of establishing personal and economic independence. • Also a time of career development. • Early adults select a mate, start a family , and rear children.

14. From Womb to Tomb • Middle Adulthood • The developmental period beginning round 40 years of age and extending to about 60. • A time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility. • Also a time of assisting the next generation in becoming competent. • Middle adults reach and maintain satisfaction in a career.

15. From Womb to Tomb • Late Adulthood • A period beginning in the sixties or seventies and lasting until death. • A time of adjustment to decreasing strength and health. • Also a time of life review, retirement, and new social roles.

16. From Womb to Tomb • Death......

17. From Womb to Tomb

18. Stages of Development • In a Developmental Psychologist’s Perspective: • “The concept of stages implies that behaviours at a given stage are organized around a dominant theme or a coherent set of characteristics, behaviours at one stage are quantitatively different from behaviours at earlier or later stages, and all children go through the same stages in the same order .”

19. Motor Development

20. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Level of Moral Judgement Theory

21. Sensory Capabilities of a Newborn • Vision • Newborns have poor visual acuity, their ability to change focus is limited, and they are very nearsighted. • During the first week of life, your baby will have limited vision. She can focus best on objects that are 7 to 12 inches away from her eyes. Within weeks, the range of her sight will expand. Yet although she can now see objects that are farther away, she will probably show interest-through facial expressions or coos and gurgles-only in those objects that remain fairly close.

22. Sensory Capabilities of a Newborn Vision • Because newborns best perceive sharply contrasting patterns of light and darkness, the pastel pinks and blues traditionally used to decorate a baby's nursery have little benefit for your baby-at least in her first weeks. • Most babies also have a limited ability to track the movement of objects with their head and eyes or with their eyes alone. Babies can track movement only for a short distance and only if the objects move slowly. • Games such as peek-a-boo make little sense at this age. If you aren't in the direct line of your baby's sight, you are-for all intents and purposes-gone. Even if you just hide your face behind your hands, your baby no longer knows you're there.

23. Sensory Capabilities • Vision

24. Sensory Capabilities of a Newborn • Hearing • Most babies have a sensitive sense of hearing, and they pay careful attention to the noises in their world. Your baby can distinguish among a wide variety of different sounds. Like most newborns, he will probably show a particular fondness for human voices in preference to other sounds. Talking softly to your baby will stimulate his sense of hearing in a way he will enjoy. • Babies can track sounds, just as they can track motion. Within several weeks of birth, your baby may even begin to look toward the source of your voice or another favourite sound-a remarkably early coordination of the senses of sight and hearing.

25. Sensory Capabilities of a Newborn • Taste and Smell • Your baby's senses of taste and smell will also be active in the first days and weeks of life. Of course, babies are not gourmets. Your child probably won't experiment with a wide variety of tastes for quite some time. Indeed, breast milk and/or formula should make up your child's entire diet for several months. • Tests have shown, however, that even newborns who are offered a wider variety of tastes demonstrate distinct preferences. Bitter or sour tastes provoke faces or crying from newborns. Not surprisingly, babies tend to have a sweet tooth-a good thing, because both breast milk and formula taste very sweet. • Little is known about a newborn's sense of smell. Yet because the senses of smell and taste are so closely related, babies can probably distinguish among a variety of aromas. Just what babies prefer to smell is difficult to test.

27. Sensory Capabilities of a Newborn • Touch • Your newborn's skin, especially his lips and hands, is very sensitive to touch. Long before he can voluntarily reach for objects, your baby nonetheless uses his sense of touch to establish contact with the outside world. By lying on different surfaces and coming into contact with different objects, he discovers the difference between hard and soft, hot and cold, and smooth and rough. • By observing your child's responses, you can discover the textures and temperatures he prefers. Even without testing, however, you can safely assume that he likes being held close, cuddled, and kept warm.

28. Mental Capabilities of a Newborn • Learning and Memory

29. A Baby’s Reflexes • Reflexes are involuntary movements or actions. Some movements are spontaneous, occurring as part of the baby's usual activity. Others are responses to certain actions. Reflexes help identify normal brain and nerve activity. Some reflexes occur only in specific periods of development. The following are some of the normal reflexes seen in newborn babies:

30. Root Reflex Root reflexThis reflex begins when the corner of the baby's mouth is stroked or touched. The baby will turn his/her head and open his/her mouth to follow and "root" in the direction of the stroking. This helps the baby find the breast or bottle to begin feeding.

31. A Baby’s Reflexes • Root reflex • Trigger: A gentle stroke on the newborn’s cheek • Response: Baby turns toward the touch, with mouth open • Duration: Until baby is three to four months old (sometimes, babies continue doing this in their sleep past four months old) • Reason: Helps baby find food

32. A Baby’s Reflexes • Suck reflexRooting helps the baby become ready to suck. When the roof of the baby's mouth is touched, the baby will begin to suck. This reflex does not begin until about the 32nd week of pregnancy and is not fully developed until about 36 weeks. Premature babies may have a weak or immature sucking ability because of this. Babies also have a hand-to-mouth reflex that goes with rooting and sucking and may suck on fingers or hands.

33. A Baby’s Reflexes • Suck reflex • Trigger: Something, such as a nipple (breast or bottle) or parent’s finger, touching roof of baby’s mouth • Response: Baby sucks on nipple • Duration: Three to four months • Reason: Helps baby eat

34. A Baby’s Reflexes • Moro reflexThe Moro reflex is often called a startle reflex because it usually occurs when a baby is startled by a loud sound or movement. In response to the sound, the baby throws back his/her head, extends out the arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in. A baby's own cry can startle him/her and begin this reflex. This reflex lasts about five to six months.

35. A Baby’s Reflexes • Moro reflex (also called startle reflex) • Trigger: Loud noise (even baby’s own cry!), sudden movement, or sensation of falling • Response: Baby cries and extends legs, arms, and fingers, arches back, then retracts arms and legs • Duration: Until baby is four to six months old • Reason: Baby’s first attempts to protect himself from harm • If baby startles himself awake: Try swaddling him to make him feel more secure

36. A Baby’s Reflexes • Tonic neck reflexWhen a baby's head is turned to one side, the arm on that side stretches out and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow. This is often called the "fencing" position. The tonic neck reflex lasts about six to seven months.

37. A Baby’s Reflexes • Tonic neck reflex • Trigger: Lying on his back with head turned to one side • Response: The arm on that side extends, while the opposite arm bends at the elbow (a “fencing” position) • Duration: About six months (sometimes not present until two months of age) • Reason: May prepare baby developmentally for voluntary reaching later 

38. A Baby’s Reflexes • Grasp reflexStroking the palm of a baby's hand causes the baby to close his/her fingers in a grasp. The grasp reflex lasts only a couple of months and is stronger in premature babies.

39. A Baby’s Reflexes • Grasp (or palmar grasp) reflex • Trigger: Pressing a finger or other object, such as a rattle, into baby’s palm • Response: Baby makes a fist and tries to grab finger • Duration: Three to four months • Reason: May prepare baby developmentally for voluntary grasping later • Fun fact: Baby’s grip can be strong enough to support his entire body weight

40. A Baby’s Reflexes • Babinski reflexWhen the sole of the foot is firmly stroked, the big toe bends back toward the top of the foot and the other toes fan out. This is a normal reflex up to about 2 years of age.

41. A Baby’s Reflexes • Babinski’s reflex • Trigger: A gentle stroke on the sole of the foot (from heel to toe) • Response: Foot turns in and toes flare up • Duration: Six to 24 months • Reason: Perhaps an attempt to protect against falling

42. A Baby’s Reflexes • Step reflexThis reflex is also called the walking or dance reflex because a baby appears to take steps or dance when held upright with his/her feet touching a solid surface.

43. A Baby’s Reflexes • Walking (or stepping) reflex • Trigger: Holding baby upright with his feet on a flat surface • Response: Baby lifts one foot, then the other, as if walking • Duration: About two months • Reason: May prepare baby developmentally for walking several months from now