Lecture 8: Political Islam in Southeast Asia

1. Edmund Malesky, Ph.D Politics of Southeast Asia Lecture 8: Political Islam in Southeast Asia

2. Organization of Today’s Lecture • Extent of Islam in Region • History of Islam • Colonial Patterns • Modern Political Islam (Islamic and Isamist Parties) • Radical Islam

3. Islam in Southeast Asia • 240 million adherents in Southeast Asia (roughly 40% of the region’s population). • Muslim majorities exist in Indonesia (84%) of population, Malaysia, and Brunei. • Smaller but significant populations exist in Philippines, Thailand, Singapore (16%), and to a much lesser extent Cambodia and Burma.

4. History of Islam in Southeast Asia • Islam has a long an rich history in Southeast Asia. • Muslim merchants first began to make contact in the 7th century and there is evidence of small colonies in Sumatra in the 9th century. • Full-scale conversion was kept at bay for a long time by the strength of the Svrijaya empire. • As the power of Svirijaya began to wane in the 13th Century, however, Islam began to take hold in many communities.

5. History of Islam in Southeast Asia • Observers often remark that a more “modern” form of Islam is practiced throughout Southeast Asia, as opposed to “traditionalist” practices elsewhere. • This can sometimes be confusing, because the more puritanical approaches are actually the newcomers, especially in Southeast Asia. • The modern and more tolerant approaches have existed much longer.

6. History of Islam in Southeast Asia • The dominant source of Islamic influence in the early years on Southeast Asia was from India. • The first individuals to bring Islam from India were known as the Walis. • Indian Islam was highly influenced by Central Asia and therefore had a more mystical quality, known as Sufism. • This Indian-influenced Islam thrived in Southeast Asia, because it was entering on top of a predominantly Indian-influenced Hindu-Buddhist civilization. • In order to win converts, Sufi “missionaries” allowed local populations to continue pre-Islam packages that would not be accepted by more orthodox scholars (i.e. the role of women in local markets). • As a result, Islam in Southeast Asia for centuries (beginning in the 14th century) developed a spiritualism that made it distinct from other areas of the World. • At that time, the areas now called Malaysia were primarily trading centers, and the Sumatra and Java served as the cultural centers. They also had higher literacy rates and education.

7. History of Islam in Southeast Asia • On the mainland the key to widespread conversion was the powerful trading city of Malacca, whose smaller trading empire had replaced the fallen Shrivijaya. • From the capital at Malacca, Islam spread down the east coast of Sumatra, up the east and west coasts of Malaya, to the island of Borneo, and to the trading center of Demak on the north coast of Java. From Demak, the most powerful of the trading states on north Java, the Muslim faith was disseminated to other Javanese ports and, after a long struggle with a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in the interior, to the rest of the island. From Demak, Islam was also carried to the Celebes, the spice islands in the eastern archipelago, and from there to Mindanao in the southern Philippines.

8. History of Islam in Southeast Asia • This progress of Islamic conversion shows that port cities in coastal areas were particularly receptive to the new faith. • Here, the trading links were critical. Once one of the key cities in a trading cluster converted, it was in the best interest of others to follow suit in order to enhance personal ties and provide a common basis in Muslim law to regulate business deals. • Conversion to Islam also linked these centers, culturally as well as economically, to the merchants and ports of India, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean. Islam made slow progress in areas such as central Java, where Hindu-Buddhist dynasties contested its spread.

9. History of Islam in Southeast Asia • Beginning in the 19th century, Yemeni traders began to make contact with Southeast Asia, along the coasts of Malaysia, Sumatra, and Java. • Many of these Yemenis settled, inter-married, and became deeply entrenched in local communities. • The connections still run quite deep. One can see evidence of Malay-influenced clothing in Yemen. • Yes… the Bin Laden’s are originally from Yemen. This connection has been considered important by those looking for Al Qaeda connections in Southeast Asia.

10. The Colonial Period • Sidel argues that to best understand the current struggles of political Islam we need to fully appreciate the way Islam was sidelined, disadvantaged, oppressed, and neglected under Colonial rule.

11. The Colonial Period • Indonesia: • When the Dutch began to consolidate rule in the 17th century, they centralized activities in Java and consequently stripped the authority away from the sultanates that pre-existed their arrival. Secular education supplanted religious teachings. • Dutch supported “comprador” capitalist class of Chinese revenue farmers (under the cultivation system) and merchants, sidelining Muslim rulers. • Christians were privileged in the bureaucracy. (As late as the mid-80s all of the key economic portfolios in the Suharto regime were in Catholic or Protestant hands).

12. The Colonial Period • Indonesian Islamic Organizations • Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), the revival of religious scholars, founded in reaction to “modernist movements.” Focused on welfare, education, and health • Under Japanese, Muslim organizations were organized into a single group called the Masjumi. • Some talk of an Islam State began at that time.

13. Colonial Period • Malaysia • Like Indonesia, non-Muslim Chinese and Indians were privileged in the market and bureaucratic positions • But Britain also imported labor, thereby lowering the relative proportion of Muslims in Malaysia. • Britain subordinated Islamic education to local sultanates of Malay states, thus Islamic education was used to facilitate the imperatives of the Malaysians.

14. Colonial Period • Philippines • Muslim Mindanao was virtually untouched under the Spanish period. • They were pacified and brought under central control during the American period. • But they were systematically disadvantaged by a process of migration that encouraged Christian to move there and kept rewarded the key patronage-granting position to the “Luzon Carpetbaggers.” • Land, logging concession, pasture leasing…

15. Colonial Period • Thailand • Bowring Treaty of 1855 granted Thailand the Malaysian-speaking territory. • Thailand struggled to integratethem, eventually losing them to England in 1909 • The Southern Thailand states that remained were only looselyintegrated into Thai society.

16. Sukarno Era Darul Islam: 1940s-1960s Nationalism Pancasila Belief in the one and only God Just and civilized humanity The unity of Indonesia Democracy guided by inner wisdom Social justice for the whole of the people of Indonesia Suharto Era Co-option of moderate Islam into the regime The PPP (United Development Party) is an combination of four smaller Islamic parties. Repression of radical Islam The role of Malaysia as refuge The role of Afghanistan for radicalization The growth of madrassas Indonesia and Islam

17. 2004 Parliamentary Elections

18. Role of Islam in Malaysian Politics • Islam intertwined with Malay identity. • UMNO and PAS struggle to define the role of Islam in Malaysian Society. • PAS-More conservative, advocates for an Islamic State. • Powerful in Kelantan and Terengganu • Performed very well in 1999 election after Anwar Ibrahim Incident and Asian Financial Crisis. • UMNO-Secular, but has tried to “beef-up” its Islamic credentials when it is threatened politically by PAS. • But has also been critical of too much Islam in public life and has asserted itself to prevent PAS from instituting Islamic Criminal Codes in PAS-run states. • Shown itself willing to crack-down on more radical groups within its borders

19. Malaysian 2004 Parliamentary Elections

20. Philippines • 400-year—old Secessionist Movement in Mindinao • Separatists use the term Moro, but there really are 3 major and 10 minor ethnicities incorporated under that umbrella. • Big division with Luzon came when Philippine government did not recognize successor to Sulu court AND US promoted non-Muslim migration into region

21. Philippines and Islam • Moro National Liberation Front • Founded by NurMisuari, Prof. at Univ. of Philippines, in 1970. • Supported by Libya and Malaysia (Tun Mustapha) was able to field 30,000 soldiers. • Early rebellion suffered a number of issues (lack of universal support, factionalism.. • Marcos also undermined through Southern Philippines Development Authority ($ and Mosque) • 1976 Tripoli Agreement was reached.

22. Philippines and Islam • Moro Islamic Liberation Front • Founded in 1977 in Mecca after dispute over Trioli Agreement • Criticisms of Misuari’s leadership style and goals • More popular and powerful than MNLF • Abu Sayaf • Break-off group from MILF • Small organization, but well-armed. • Engage in banditry and kidnapping • Some connections to Al Qaeda

23. Philippines and Islam • Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindinao (ARMM) • Agreement reached after President Ramos traveled to Libya and asked Khadaffy to put pressure on Moro Clients to settle (October 1992) • NurMisuari became head of the Southern Philippines Council for Peace and Develoment • ARMM includes four provinces Sulo, Tawi-Tawi, Maguidanao, Lanao del Sur • Approximately, 12,000 square kilometers (4% of Philippines) • 27 billion pesos and millions of USD, but there is little evidence that ARMM has improved welfare in the region. • Big debates about why.

24. Southern Thailand • Conflict has existed for some time, but was somewhat muted prior to Thaksin due to dominance of Democratic Party in the region • Thaksin’s attempt to replace local bureaucrats exacerbated the economic grievances of the community. • Since the beginning of 2004, there have been 1200 deaths and 200 bombings.

25. Radical Islam in the Region

26. International Radical Islam in Malaysia • Homegrown: Kampulan Mujahidin Malaysia (KMM) • Founded in 1995 by a small group of PAS defectors who had grown tired of the democratic process. • Core group were veterans of the Soviet-Afghan war. • Allegedly led by Nik Adli Nik Aziz, son of PAS spiritual leader, Nik Aziz. • International: Jemaah Islamyia (JI) • Founded in 1995 by Indonesians Abdullah Sungkar and Abu Bakar Ba’asyir, Afghan war veterans, who had fled imprisonment by Suharto. • Found a safe haven in Malaysia, where they could operate under the radar. • Recruited fellow Indonesians Hambali and Abu Jibril, veterans who were close to Osama Bin Laden and pledged allegiance to Al-Qaeda. • Recruited at all levels throughout Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia  Linked up and worked with KMM. • Created a decentralized organizational structure with 4 cells: Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua/Australia. • Malaysia Cell main base of operations until fall of Suharto in 1998. • Malaysia Cell important for fundraising and links to Al-Qaeda.

27. Malaysian Response to Radical Islam • Aggressive Responses to Threat • Prior to 9/11 arrested Abu Jibril and others under the ISA and has since used the ISA liberally. • Nik Adli Nik Aziz detained in 2001 as a member of the KMM, which was a severe blow to PAS. • Worked extensively with Singapore and the Philippines, but was frustrated by Indonesian intransigence on collaboration—until the 2002 Bali Bombings. • International Collaboration • Called for greater intelligence sharing in ASEAN. • Decried 9/11 attacks and works with the US on Southeast Asia Regional Center for Counterterrorism. • The US government has been less overtly critical of the ISA.

28. Radical Islam in Indonesia • Radical Islam in a democratic society • Islamist terrorism • Laskar Jihad • Jemaah Islamiya • Bali Bombings • Australian Embassy bombing • Muslim democratic parties • Sharia and the law

29. The BIG DEBATE • Are current issues with Radical Islamic groups a homegrown phenomena or have the been exacerbated by international connections? • Variants • Purely Domestic • Purely International • “Grafting on” to existing movements

30. Al Qaeda in Southeast Asia • Back office • Taking advantage of states of convenience • Funder and supporter of local movements