1 / 27

Encoding & Retrieval: What Mental Activities Create Strong Memories?

Encoding & Retrieval: What Mental Activities Create Strong Memories?. Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor : John Miyamoto 05/07 /2014: Lecture 06-3.

lali
Download Presentation

Encoding & Retrieval: What Mental Activities Create Strong Memories?

An Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. Content is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use only. Download presentation by click this link. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. During download, if you can't get a presentation, the file might be deleted by the publisher.

E N D

Presentation Transcript

  1. Encoding & Retrieval:What Mental Activities Create Strong Memories? Psychology 355: Cognitive PsychologyInstructor: John Miyamoto05/07/2014: Lecture 06-3 This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that were used to create the slides. The macros aren’t needed to view the slides. If necessary, you can disable the macros without any change to the presentation.

  2. Outline • Depth of Processing Hypothesis • Generation Effect • The Mnemonic Value of Mental Images Diagram of Memory Systems Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  3. Episodic & Semantic Memory HUMAN MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  4. Recommendations for Effective Study Habits This list is taken from Goldstein, pp. 187 – 189. Many of these ideas derive from the work of Robert Bjork. • Elaborate & generate • Associate the material with other things you know • Organize the material in a meaningful way • Take breaks • Match the learning & testing conditions • Beware of "illusions of learning“ Comments: • NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit! • My lectures on encoding & retrieval will emphasize findingsfrom memory research that support these recommendations Diagram of Standard Memory Model: Emphasis on Encoding & Retrieval Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  5. Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation Control Processes Retrieval Encoding SensoryStore Short-TermStore Long-TermStore ExternalWorld • Encoding – creating an LTM out of currently processed information • Retrieval – bringing information that is stored in LTM back to STM • Consolidation – a process that strengthens memories over time. Consolidation increases the chances for retrieval. In General, What Makes Memories Memorable? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  6. In General, What Makes Memories Memorable? • Mere repetition (memorization) is ineffective. • What is effective? Elaboration & Association Generation of Related Thoughts Creating Related Mental Images Repeated Retrievals, Reprocessing, & Re-encoding Develop Retrieval Strategies and Retrieval Cuesthat Will Be Useful on Future Occasions Depth of Processing Hypothesis Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  7. Depth of Processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) • Depth of Processing Hypothesis: Depth of processing at time of study is the main determinant of ease of remembering. • Processing of to-be-remembered material proceeds from shallow features to deeper content. SHALLOW Letters in words Sound of words.... .... DEEP Meaning Relationship to other knowledge • Another way to state the depth of processing hypothesis: Speed of processing is slower but strength of memory trace is greater when encoding occurs at deeper levels of processing. Test of Depth of Processing Hypothesis Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  8. Craik & Tulving Test of Depth of Processing Hypothesis Experimental Paradigm: On each trial, the subject sees a word and answers a question about the word. Condition 1 (very shallow processing):Example: Does the word “dungeon” contain the letter “t”? Condition 2 (moderately shallow processing):Example: Does the word “dungeon" rhyme with “engine"? Condition 3 (deeper processing of meaning):Example: Does the word “dungeon" fit into the sentence, “The prisoner was kept in a ______ for two years."? • Later the subject is asked to recall the words, and the percentage of correct recall is recorded. Results re Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  9. Results re Depth of Processing Hypothesis Finding: Reaction time is slower but percent correct recall gets better as processing gets deeper and deeper. • Recall improves with deeper processing during study. • Result supports depth of processing hypothesis. Exception to Depth of Processing Hypothesis: Transfer-Appropriate-Processing Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  10. Exception to Depth of Processing Hypothesis:Transfer-Appropriate-Processing Exception: Deeper processing at time of study is less effective if the memory test includes cues that are not meaning related. Example: Transfer Appropriate Processing • Shallow Study Task: Does the word “dungeon” contain the letter “t”? • Moderate Study Task: Does the word “dungeon" rhyme with “engine"? • Deeper Study Task: Does the word “dungeon" fit into the sentence, “The prisoner was kept in a ______ for two years."? • Test: Can you recall a word that rhymes with “luncheon”? • Result: Moderate study task produces best performance on this memory testbecause it focuses on word sound (transfer appropriate processing). Why Memorization Is Not an Effective Study Habit Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  11. Confounding of Depth of Processing with Duration of Encoding Two confounded aspects of deep processing: • Deep processing takes longer than shallow processing (in general). • Deep processing emphasizes the meaning of the to-be-learned material and its relationship to other pieces of knowledge. Question: Does deeper processing produce better memory because it takes longer or because it emphasizes meaning? Answer: Clever experiments demonstrate it is the type of processing (meaning-based) and not the duration of processing that creates the stronger memory. # Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  12. Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits • Elaborate & generate • Organize the material in a meaningful way • Associate the material with other things you know • Take breaks • Match the learning & testing conditions • Beware of "illusions of learning" • NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit! Next The Generation Effect – What Is It? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  13. Generation Effect Generation effect: You are more likely to remember information that you retrieve or generate (during study) than information that you simply receive and attempt to “memorize.” Intuitive idea: • Mental activity at time of study promotes future recall. • Any ideas that you generate during study can serve asretrieval cues when you need to remember the information later. Generation Effect Anti-Passive Learning Experiment: Depth of Processing & Generation Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  14. Experiment on Depth of Processing & the Generation Effect Measure of Memory: Cued recall of 2nd word (1st word is the cue), . Same Slide with Emphasis Rectangles Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  15. Experiment on Depth of Processing & the Generation Effect Measure of Memory: Cued recall of 2nd word (1st word is the cue), . Results of Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  16. Results on Depth of Processing & the Generation Effect • Results showed the % corrected cued recall of the 2nd word given the first word as a cue. . . Point Out the Depth of Processing Effect & the Generation Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  17. Results on Depth of Processing & the Generation Effect worse worse better better better better worse worse • Depth of processing effect: “Meaning” conditions show better recall than “rhyme” conditions. • Generation effect: “Generate” conditions show better recall than “read” conditions. . . Intuitive Example of Use of Generation Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  18. Generating Semantic Associates Creates Strong Retrieval Cues Mantyla (1986): Purpose of Study: • to show that semantic associates that were present at study are effective cues for recall; • self-generated semantic cues are the more effective cues for recall than are semantic cues that someone else generates. Memory Task: Subjects study words. Later they are asked to recall them. 3 experimental conditions (next slide) Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  19. Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test • At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test • At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test • At study, subject just sees the target words. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. Examples of Conditions 1, 2 & 3 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  20. Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test • At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test • At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test • At study, subject just sees the target words. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. List 3 words that are related to “snow”: What word is related to: “white”, “cold”, “wet”? Uh – “white”, “cold”, “wet” Examples of Conditions 1, 2 & 3 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  21. Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test • At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test • At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test • At study, subject just sees the target words. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. The word “snow” is related to: “white”, “cold”, “wet. What word is related to: “white”, “cold”, “wet”? Examples of Conditions 1, 2 & 3 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  22. Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test • At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test • At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test • At study, subject just sees the target words. • At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. Remember the word: “snow” What word is related to: “white”, “cold”, “wet”? Examples of Conditions 1, 2 & 3 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  23. Goldstein, Figure 7.11.Results from Mantyla (1986) Condition 1: Generate cues; use cues RESULTSCondition 1: 90% correct Condition 2: 55% correct Condition 3: 17% correct SUMMARY • Cues are helpful at time of test. • Cues that you have studied are even more helpful at time of test. • Cues that you generated yourself are even more helpful at time of test. • Why is this the pattern of memory results? • Cues promote retrieval by means of associative connections. (Obvious) • Generating our own cues helps us learn to access meaningful relationships. Condition 2See cues; use cues Condition 3See no cues; use cues Retrieval as an Encoding Strategy Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  24. Using the Generation Effect to Learn Cog Psych COMMIT TO MEMORY: “Memories are not stored in the hippocampus, but the hippocampus is critical for packaging memories and for moving them into storage.” (Metaphor)--------------------------------------------------------------------------- Generate some images or analogies that describe the functioning of the hippocampus. • Hippocampus is like a records clerk in a business. • Hippocampus is like a antique collector who has a very small shop with a very large warehouse. . Useful Study Exercises Based on Generation Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  25. Useful Study Exercises Based on Generation Effect • Suppose you are studying topic X, e.g., you are studyingthe word length effect in working memory. How do you improve your memory for this topic? • Try to write exam questions about the word length effect.E.g., write a multiple choice question about what is the word length effect. Or write an essay question about what are the implications of the word length effect. • Try to write a small list of hints for an idea that you want to remember. E.g., if you want to remember what is the word length effect and why it is important your hints could be: • short versus long, talk fast/remember more Why Does Generating Related Ideas Improve Memory? – END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  26. Why Does Generating Ideas Improve Memory? • Ideas that you generate serve as retrieval cues. • Ideas that you generate create associations with other ideas.Links to these ideas serve as retrieval cues. • The more links you have to a concept, the more waysyou have to access this information. • The mental activity of discovering associations and relationships is a skill and habit. Self-Reference Has Mnemonic Efficacy Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

  27. Wednesday, May 07, 2014: The Lecture Ended 3 Slides Earlier Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '14

More Related